Vegetarian Eating (Packet)
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The Benefits Of A Vegetarian Diet
Gary Null has been a lifelong vegetarian who frequently discusses the numerous
scientific studies validating the health benefits of vegetarianism. These studies confirm
that vegetarians frequently have fewer incidences of obesity, hypertension, coronary
artery disease and certain forms of cancer.
There are many types of vegetarians. Fruitarians—as the name implies—eat only
raw fruit and seeds. Vegans shun all animal products. Lactovegetarians consume dairy
products but not eggs. Semivegetarians eat chicken and/or fish but not red meat. All of
these groups are classified as vegetarians.
Here are some of the studies Gary has compiled that validate the health benefits of
vegetarianism.
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Benefits of a Vegetarian Diet
Benefits of a Vegetarian Diet ................................................ 2
Vegetarian Diet ...................................................................... 3 I. Health & Nutrition ........................................................ 3 II. Excretory System ......................................................... 22 III. Circulatory System................................................... 28 IV. Digestion System ........................................................ 47 V. Reproduction System / Endocrine System .............. 48
VI. Children & Infants ................................................... 50
VII. Athletes ................................................................... 54
VIII. Bone ....................................................................... 56
X. Meat ........................................................................... 60
XI. Grains / Whole Grains ............................................. 67 3 Vegetarian Diet I. Health & Nutrition 1. [Vegetarian diets; effect on health] [Article in Spanish] de Luis Roman D, Aller R, Castano O. Seccion de Endocrinologia y Nutricion Clinica,
Unidad de Apoyo a la nvestigacion, Hospital Universitario del Rio Hortega, Valladolid,
Espana. dadluis@yahoo.es Rev Clin Esp. 2007 Mar;207(3):1413. Vegetarian diets are those diets mainly based on the consumption of vegetable product,
but that also permit consumption of eggs and milk. The American Dietetic Association
made a declaration on these vegetarian diets in which they stated that <<a wellplanned
vegetarian diet is healthy, nutritionally adequate and provides health benefits in the
prevention and treatment of certain diseases>>. Some studies have shown beneficial
results in obesity, cancer, Parkinson disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and
urinary stones, compared with the omnivorous. The possible theoretical benefits in some
diseases has been seen in the medical practice (diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardiovascular
risk). However more studies are needed in the case of Parkinson's disease and rheumatoid
arthritis. 2. Vegetarian diets: what are the advantages? Leitzmann C. Institute of Nutritional Sciences, University of Giessen, Giessen,
Germany. claus.leitzmann@ernaehrung.unigiessen.de Forum Nutr. 2005;(57):14756. A growing body of scientific evidence indicates that wholesome vegetarian diets offer
distinct advantages compared to diets containing meat and other foods of animal origin.
The benefits arise from lower intakes of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein as
well as higher intakes of complex carbohydrates, dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid,
vitamin C and E, carotenoids and other phytochemicals . Since vegetarians consume
widely divergent diets, a differentiation between various types of vegetarian diets is
necessary. Indeed, many contradictions and misunderstandings concerning vegetarianism
are due to scientific data from studies without this differentiation . In the past, vegetarian
diets have been described as being deficient in several nutrients including protein, iron, 4 zinc, calcium, vitamin B12 and A, n3 fatty acids and iodine. Numerous studies have
demonstrated that the observed deficiencies are usually due to poor meal planning. Well
balanced vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including hildren,
adolescents, pregnant and lactating women, the elderly and competitive athletes. In most
cases, vegetarian diets are beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases,
such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis, renal disease
and dementia, as well as diverticular disease, gallstones and rheumatoid arthritis . The
reasons for choosing a vegetarian diet often go beyond health and wellbeing and include
among others economical, ecological and social concerns. The influences of these aspects
of vegetarian diets are the subject of the new field of nutritional ecology that is concerned
with sustainable life styles and human development. 3. Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada:
Vegetarian diets. American Dietetic Association; Dietitians of Canada. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003 Jun;103(6):74865. It is the position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada that
appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide
health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases . Approximately 2.5%
of adults in the United States and 4% of adults in Canada follow vegetarian diets. A
vegetarian diet is defined as one that does not include meat, fish, or fowl. Interest in
vegetarianism appears to be increasing, with many restaurants and college foodservices
offering vegetarian meals routinely. Substantial growth in sales of foods attractive to
vegetarians has occurred, and these foods appear in many supermarkets. This position
paper reviews the current scientific data related to key nutrients for vegetarians, including
protein, iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B12, vitamin A, n3 fatty
acids, and iodine. A vegetarian, including vegan, diet can meet current recommendations
for all of these nutrients. In some cases, use of fortified foods or supplements can be
helpful in meeting recommendations for individual nutrients. Wellplanned vegan and
other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including
during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Vegetarian diets offer a
number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and
animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium,
folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have
been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower
rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol
levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and
prostate and colon cancer. Although a number of federally funded and institutional
feeding programs can accommodate vegetarians, few have foods suitable for vegans at
this time. Because of the variability of dietary practices among vegetarians, individual
assessment of dietary intakes of vegetarians is required. Dietetics professionals have a 5 responsibility to support and encourage those who express an interest in consuming a
vegetarian diet. They can play key roles in educating vegetarian clients about food
sources of specific nutrients, food purchase and preparation, and any dietary
modifications that may be necessary to meet individual needs. Menu planning for
vegetarians can be simplified by use of a food guide that specifies food groups and
serving sizes. 4. Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Rosell MS. Cancer Research UK Epidemiology Unit, University
of Oxford, Richard Doll Building. tim.key@ceu.ox.ac.uk Proc Nutr Soc. 2006 Feb;65(1):3541. Vegetarian diets do not contain meat, poultry or fish; vegan diets further exclude dairy
products and eggs. Vegetarian and vegan diets can vary widely, but the empirical
evidence largely relates to the nutritional content and health effects of the average diet of
welleducated vegetarians living in Western countries, together with some information on
vegetarians in nonWestern countries. In general, vegetarian diets provide relatively large
amounts of cereals, pulses, nuts, fruits and vegetables. In terms of nutrients, vegetarian
diets are usually rich in carbohydrates, n6 fatty acids, dietary fibre, carotenoids, folic
acid, vitamin C, vitamin E and Mg, and relatively low in protein, saturated fat, longchain
n3 fatty acids, retinol, vitamin B(12) and Zn; vegans may have particularly low intakes
of vitamin B(12) and low intakes of Ca. Crosssectional studies of vegetarians and vegans
have shown that on average they have a relatively low BMI and a low plasma cholesterol
concentration; recent studies have also shown higher plasma homocysteine
concentrations than in nonvegetarians. Cohort studies of vegetarians have shown a
moderate reduction in mortality from IHD but little difference in other major causes of
death or allcause mortality in comparison with healthconscious nonvegetarians from
the same population . Studies of cancer have not shown clear differences in cancer rates
between vegetarians and nonvegetarians. More data are needed, particularly on the
health of vegans and on the possible impacts on health of low intakes of longchain n3
fatty acids and vitamin B(12). Overall, the data suggest that the health of Western
vegetarians is good and similar to that of comparable nonvegetarians. 5. Nutrient intakes and eating behavior scores of vegetarian and
nonvegetarian women. Janelle KC , Barr SI . School of Family and Nutritional Sciences, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. J Am Diet Assoc. 1995 Feb;95(2):1806, 189, quiz 1878. 6 OBJECTIVE: To compare nutrient intakes between vegetarians and no vegetarians with
similar health practices, and to assess relationships with eating behavior scores from the
ThreeFactor Eating Questionnaire. DESIGN: Survey. SETTING: Metropolitan area in
western Canada. SUBJECTS: Subjects (n = 45) were participants in a study comparing
sub clinical menstrual disturbances between vegetarians and no vegetarians. To be
included, women had to be 20 to 40 years old, be weight stable with a body mass index
(BMI; kg/m2) of 18 to 25, be a nonsmoker, exercise 7 hours a week or less, consume one
alcoholic drink or less a day, and not be using oral contraceptives. No vegetarians (n =
22) ate red meat three times a week or more, and vegetarians (n = 23, 8 vegans and 15
lactovegetarians) had excluded all meat, fish, and poultry for 2 years or more. MAIN
OUTCOME MEASURES: Nutrient intake assessed by three 3day diet records;
supplement use; body composition; and dietary restraint (conscious limitation of food
intake), disinhibition, and hunger assessed by the ThreeFactor Eating Questionnaire.
STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Anthropometrical variables, nutrient
intakes, and eating behavior scores were compared between vegetarians and
nonvegetarians using unpaired t tests, and among vegans, lactovegetarians, and
nonvegetarians using oneway analysis of variance and Duncan's test. Supplement use
was compared using chi 2 analysis. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to
evaluate relationships between variables. RESULTS: Diets of all women adhered closely
to current nutrition recommendations. Vegetarians had lower protein and cholesterol
intakes and higher percentage of energy as carbohydrate, ratio of polyunsaturated fat to
saturated fat (P:S ratio), and fiber intake than nonvegetarians. Vegetarians had lower
riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B12, zinc, and sodium intakes and higher folate, vitamin C,
and copper intakes. However, many differences were not apparent between the subgroup
of lactovegetarians and nonvegetarians (their P:S ratios and carbohydrate, fiber,
riboflavin, folate, vitamin C, and copper intakes were similar). In contrast, differences
existed between the lactovegetarian and the vegan subgroups. Supplement use was
similar between groups, except for greater vitamin C use by vegetarians. Vegetarians
were leaner than nonvegetarians, had lower restraint scores, and had significant
associations between restraint and BMI (r = .49; P < .05) and energy per kilogram body
weight (r = .60; P < .01). APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Current nutrition
recommendations can be attained by vegetarians and nonvegetarians alike, but nutrient
intakes cannot be inferred from dietary pattern. In this study, the intakes of health
conscious nonvegetarians and lactovegetarians were more similar than the intakes of
lactovegetarians and vegans. Vegans' calcium and vitamin B12 intakes may need
attention. Vegetarians' lower restraint scores suggest that they are not at increased risk for
eating disorders. 6. Relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among health
conscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian women ages 18 to
50. Barr SI , Broughton TM. Food, Nutrition and Health, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada. sibarr@interchange.ubc.ca 7 J Am Coll Nutr. 2000 NovDec;19(6):7818. OBJECTIVE: To compare relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among
similarly healthconscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian premenopausal
women. METHODS: Demographic data, lifestyle practices and weight loss efforts (by
questionnaire), body mass index (BMI;kg/m2) and dietary intake (via multiplepass 24
hour diet recall) were compared in a convenience sample of 90 current vegetarians, 35
past vegetarians and 68 nonvegetarians. RESULTS: Age ( 31.9 +/ 8.8), educational
attainment, smoking status, alcohol use, physical activity and perceived health status
were similar among the three groups of women. BMI did not differ by dietary pattern and
averaged 23.7 +/ 4.7 for all women combined. Participants had intentionally lost > or =
10 pounds a mean of 2.1 times, and 39% of women perceived themselves to be
overweight; again, no differences were observed among dietary groups. Dietary intakes
of vegetarians and current nonvegetarians were consistent with current recommendations
for macronutrient composition (< 30% fat, < 10% saturates). Compared to current
nonvegetarians, current vegetarians had lower intakes of protein, saturated fat,
cholesterol, niacin, vitamins B12 and D, and higher fiber and magnesium intakes.
Vegetarians' mean vitamin B12 and D intakes were well below recommendations.
CONCLUSIONS: Relative weight and weight loss efforts do not differ by dietary pattern
among similarly healthconscious vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. The only
differences in nutrient intake with potential health implications were vitamins D and B12. 7. Nutritional intakes of vegetarian populations in France. Leblanc JC, Yoon H, Kombadjian A, Verger P. Institut National Agronomique Paris
Grignon, Laboratoire de Biologie et Nutrition Humaine, 16 rue Claude Bernard 75005
Paris, France. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2000 May;54(5):4439. OBJECTIVE: To assess food behaviour and determine nutritional intakes of various
vegetarian populations in France. DESIGN: A fiveday selfadministered food record
which was mailed to members of the three principal French vegetarian organisations.
SUBJECTS: 145 subjects, aged 787 y; 94 classical vegetarians (19% of those contacted),
34 Hindu lactovegetarians (17% of those contacted) and 17 macrobiotic (34% of those
contacted). SETTING: The survey was conducted between March 1997 and July 1997 in
France. RESULTS: Vegetarianism in France is represented by three main classes of food
behaviour: ovolactovegetarian (AAV), lactovegetarian (KRI) and macrobiotic (MMK).
The geometric mean intakes ranged from 1952 kcal/d (KRI), 2051 kcal/d (MMK) to 2384
kcal/d (AAV) for males and from 1302 kcal/d (MMK), 1675 kcal/d (AAV) to 1804
kcal/d (KRI) for females, after adjusting for age and BMI. The energy consumption in the
MMK group was significantly lower than that in the AAV (P< 0.05) and KRI groups
(P<0.01), respectively. A difference among groups was observed for females (P=0.0002),
but not for males. The MMK group consumed less lipid than the other two vegetarian 8 groups, 46 g/d for men and 38 g/d for women vs 80 g/d for men and 61 g/d for women in
the AAV group and 93 g/d for men and 81 g/d for women in the KRI group, respectively.
Differences with AAV and MMK were statistically significant (P< 0.001 for men and
women for both groups). Mean protein consumption ranged from 60 g/d (AAV), 64 g/d
(KRI) to 77 g/d (MMK) for males and from 46 g/d (MMK), 50 g/d (AAV) to 58 g/d
(KRI) for females. Mean carbohydrate intakes ranged from 247 g/d (AAV), 321 g/d
(KRI) to 338 g/d (MMK) in males and from 209 g/d (MMK), 228 g/d (AAV) to 242 g/d
(KRI) in females. There were no significant differences in protein and carbohydrate
intakes between the groups. Median calcium intakes ranged from 758.2 mg/d (MMK),
863 mg/d (AAV) to 989.3 mg/d (KRI) for the men and from 500.8 mg/d (MMK), 863
mg/d (AAV) to 934 mg/d (KRI) for the women. In the men, there was no differences in
daily calcium intakes between the three vegetarian groups. However, we found a
significant difference for women (P=0. 0041). The women in the MMK group presented
significantly lower daily calcium intakes than the women in the AAV (P= 0.013) and
KRI (P=0.0032) groups. The AAV and KRI groups consumed dairy products supplying
respectively 36% and 53% for the men and 39% and 59% for the women of total calcium
against 0% for men and women in the MMK group. Median iron intakes ranged between
12.5 mg/d (KRI), 13.2 mg/d (AAV) and 22.5 mg/d (MMK) for the men and between 11.2
mg/d (KRI), 14.6 mg/d (AAV) and 16.9 mg/d (MMK) for the women. MMK (men
P=0.0172 and women P=0.0131) and AAV (only in men P=0.037) groups consumed
significantly higher quantities of iron than did the KRI group. The heme iron median
intake in males and females of the three vegetarian groups was very low (< 0.5%).
Overall, the female vegetarians consumed 58.1 (MMK), 109 (AAV) and 127.4 (KRI) mg
of vitamin C per day and the males 76.3 (MMK), 150.4 (AAV) and 150.4 (KRI) mg per
day. Median vitamin B9 intakes ranged from 247.5 microg/d (KRI), 312 microg/d
(MMK) to 390.4 microg/d (AAV) for the men and from 188.3 microg/d (MMK), 266.9
microg/d (KRI) to 323.8 microg/d (AAV) for the women. Vitamin B12 consumption
ranged from 0.2 microg/d (MMK), 1.5 microg/d (AAV) to 1.7 microg/d (KRI) in the
women and from 0.6 microg/d (MMK) to 1.0 microg/d (AAV and KRI) in the men. No
differences in consumption were observed in the males. On the other hand, the women in
the MMK group consumed significantly less vitamin C and B12 than did the women in
the AAV (P= 0.0006) and KRI (P=0. 0396) groups, while it was at the limit of
significance for the females (P=0.0715) for vitamin B9. CONCLUSION: Our results
suggest that vegetarians have a better understanding of dietary requirements than
does the general population. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED) 8. EPICOxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort
of 33 883 meateaters and 31 546 non meateaters in the UK. Davey GK , Spencer EA, Appleby PN, Allen NE, Knox KH, Key TJ. Cancer
Research UK Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford, Gibson Building, Radcliffe
Infirmary, Oxford OX2 6HE, UK. davey@iarc.fr Public Health Nutr. 2003 May;6(3):25969. 9 OBJECTIVE: To describe the lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes of the
Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition
(EPIC). DESIGN: Cohort of men and women recruited through general practices or by
post to include a high proportion of non meateaters. Dietary, anthropometric and
lifestyle data were collected at baseline and four diet groups were defined. SETTING:
United Kingdom. PARTICIPANTS: In total, 65 429 men and women aged 20 to 97
years, comprising 33 883 meateaters, 10 110 fisheaters, 18 840 lactoovo vegetarians
and 2596 vegans. RESULTS: Nutrient intakes and lifestyle factors differed across the
diet groups, with striking differences between meateaters and vegans, and fisheaters and
vegetarians usually having intermediate values. Mean fat intake in each diet group was
below the UK dietary reference value of 33% of total energy intake. The mean
intake of saturated fatty acids in vegans was approximately 5% of energy, less than
half the mean intake among meateaters (1011%). Vegans had the highest intakes of
fibre, vitamin B1, folate, vitamin C, vitamin E, magnesium and iron, and the lowest
intakes of retinol, vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium and zinc. CONCLUSIONS: The
EPICOxford cohort includes 31 546 non meateaters and is one of the largest
studies of vegetarians in the world. The average nutrient intakes in the whole cohort
are close to those currently recommended for good health. Comparisons of the diet
groups show wide ranges in the intakes of major nutrients such as saturated fat and
dietary fibre. Such variation should increase the ability of the study to detect
associations of diet with major cancers and causes of death. 9. The UK Women's Cohort Study: comparison of vegetarians, fisheaters
and meateaters. Cade JE , Burley VJ , Greenwood DC; UK Women's Cohort Study Steering Group.
Nutritional Epidemiology Group, University of Leeds, UK. j.e.cade@leeds.ac.uk Public Health Nutr. 2004 Oct;7(7):8718. BACKGROUND: This paper describes the development of the UK Women's Cohort
Study and presents cohort baseline characteristics. METHODS: In total, 35,372 women,
aged 3569 years at recruitment, were selected to ensure a wide range of dietary intakes.
Diet was assessed by a 217item foodfrequency questionnaire (FFQ). Detailed lifestyle
information was collected by postal questionnaire. Vegetarians, fisheaters and meat
eaters were compared. RESULTS: The cohort women are mainly white, well
educated, middleclass and married with children. They are healthconscious with
only 11% current smokers and 58% taking dietary supplements. Twentyeight per cent of
subjects selfreport as being vegetarian and 1% as vegan. However, only 18% are defined
as 'vegetarian' from the FFQ. Fat provides 32% of energy; vitamin and mineral intakes
are high, with a broad range of intakes . Meateaters are older, with a higher body
mass index (BMI) and the lowest intakes of carbohydrate, fibre, vitamin C, folate,
iron and calcium. Other fisheaters are similar to vegetarians. Vegetarians have the 10 lowest intakes of protein, fat and saturated fat. Oily fisheaters have the lowest
BMI; are the least likely to smoke or use fullfat milk; and are the most likely to use
dietary supplements and consume the most fruit and vegetables. Oily fisheaters
have the highest total energy intake and vegetarians the lowest . Semiskimmed milk,
bread, potatoes, wine, bananas and muesli are important contributors to energy for all
groups. CONCLUSION: A large cohort of middleaged women has been created
encompassing a wide range of different eating patterns, including diets currently of
interest to research into protection against cancer and coronary heart disease. Participants
will be followed up to study the effects of different food and nutrient intakes on long
term health outcomes. 10. Diet and body mass index in 38000 EPICOxford meateaters, fish
eaters, vegetarians and vegans. Spencer EA , Appleby PN, Davey GK, Key TJ. Cancer Research UK Epidemiology
Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. elizabeth.spencer@cancer.org.uk Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003 Jun;27(6):72834. OBJECTIVE: To compare body mass index (BMI) in four diet groups (meateaters, fish
eaters, vegetarians and vegans) in the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective
Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPICOxford) and to investigate lifestyle and
dietary factors associated with any observed differences. DESIGN: Crosssectional
analysis of selfreported dietary, anthropometric and lifestyle data. PARTICIPANTS: A
total of 37875 healthy men and women aged 2097 y participating in EPICOxford.
RESULTS: Ageadjusted mean BMI was significantly different between the four diet
groups, being highest in the meateaters ( 24.41 kg/m(2) in men, 23.52 kg/m(2) in
women) and lowest in the vegans (22.49 kg/m(2) in men, 21.98 kg/m(2) in women). Fish
eaters and vegetarians had similar, intermediate mean BMI. Differences in lifestyle
factors including smoking, physical activity and education level accounted for less than
5% of the difference in mean ageadjusted BMI between meateaters and vegans,
whereas differences in macronutrient intake accounted for about half of the difference.
High protein (as percent energy) and low fibre intakes were the dietary factors most
strongly and consistently associated with increasing BMI both between and within the
diet groups. CONCLUSIONS: Fisheaters, vegetarians and especially vegans had
lower BMI than meateaters. Differences in macronutrient intakes accounted for
about half the difference in mean BMI between vegans and meateaters. High
protein and low fibre intakes were the factors most strongly associated with
increasing BMI. 11. Low body mass index in nonmeat eaters: the possible roles of animal
fat, dietary fibre and alcohol. 11 Appleby PN , Thorogood M, Mann JI, Key TJ. Imperial Cancer Research Fund
Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford, UK. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1998 May;22(5):45460. OBJECTIVE: To examine the associations of diet and other lifestyle factors with
body mass index (BMI) using data from the Oxford Vegetarian Study . SUBJECTS:
1914 male and 3378 female nonsmokers aged 2089 y at recruitment to the study.
MEASUREMENTS: All subjects completed a diet/lifestyle questionnaire at recruitment
giving details of their usual diet and other characteristics including height and weight,
smoking and drinking habits, amount of exercise, occupation and reproductive history.
Answers to the food frequency questionnaire were used to classify subjects as either meat
eaters or nonmeat eaters, and to estimate intakes of animal fat and dietary fibre. Subjects
were further classified according to their alcohol consumption, exercise level, social
class, past smoking habits and parity. RESULTS: Mean BMI was lower in nonmeat
eaters than in meat eaters in all age groups for both men and women. Overall age
adjusted mean BMIs in kg/m2 were 23.18 and 22.05 for male meat eaters and nonmeat
eaters respectively (P < 0.0001) and 22.32 and 21.32 for female meat eaters and nonmeat
eaters respectively (P < 0.0001). In addition to meat consumption, dietary fibre intake,
animal fat intake, social class and past smoking were all independently associated with
BMI in both men and women; alcohol consumption was independently associated with
BMI in men, and parity was independently associated with BMI in women. After
adjusting for these factors, the differences in mean BMI between meat eaters and non
meat eaters were reduced by 36% in men and 31% in women. CONCLUSIONS: Non
meat eaters are thinner than meat eaters. This may be partly due to a higher intake
of dietary fibre, a lower intake of animal fat, and only in men a lower intake of
alcohol. 12. Diet and serum lipids in vegan vegetarians: a model for risk reduction. Resnicow K, Barone J, Engle A, Miller S, Haley NJ, Fleming D, Wynder E.
American Health Foundation, New York, NY 10017. J Am Diet Assoc. 1991 Apr;91(4):44753. The lipid levels and dietary habits of 31 SeventhDay Adventist vegan vegetarians
(aged 5 to 46 years) who consume no animal products were assessed. Mean serum
total cholesterol ( 3.4 mmol/L), lowdensitylipoprotein cholesterol (1.8 mmol/L),
and triglyceride (0.8 mmol/L) levels were lower than expected values derived from
the Lipid Research Clinics Population Studies prevalence data. Mean highdensity
lipoprotein cholesterol ( 1.3 mmol/L) was comparable to expected values. Analysis of
quantitative food frequency data showed that vegans had a significantly lower daily
intake of total energy, percentage of energy from fat (31% vs 38%), total fat,
saturated fat, monounsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol, and protein and a 12 significantly higher intake of fiber than a sample of matched omnivore controls .
Vegans' food intake was also compared with expected values, matched for sex and age,
derived from the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and
Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 24hour recall data. The vegan diet
was characterized by increased consumption of almonds, cashews, and their nut butters;
dried fruits; citrus fruits; soy milk; and greens. We conclude from the present study
that a strict vegan diet, which is typically very low in saturated fat and dietary
cholesterol and high in fiber, can help children and adults maintain or achieve
desirable blood lipid levels. 13. The effect of a lowfat, highcarbohydrate diet on serum high density
lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride. Turley ML , Skeaff CM, Mann JI, Cox B. Department of Human Nutrition,
University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998 Oct;52(10):72832. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether substituting carbohydrate for saturated fat has
any adverse effects on serum high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and
triglycerides in freeliving individuals . DESIGN: Randomised crossover trial.
SETTING: General community. SUBJECTS: Volunteer sample of 38 healthy freeliving
men with mean (s.d.) age 37 (7) y, moderately elevated serum total cholesterol 5.51
(0.93) mmol/l and body mass index 26.0 (3.6) kg/m2. INTERVENTIONS: Participants
completed two six week experimental periods during which they consumed either a
traditional Western diet (36%, 18%, and 43% energy from total, saturated, and
carbohydrate, respectively) or a lowsaturated fat highcarbohydrate diet (22%, 6% and
59% energy from total, saturated, and carbohydrate, respectively). Dietary principles
were reinforced regularly, but food choices were selfselected during each experimental
period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Serum lipids, body weight and plasma fatty
acids. RESULTS: Reported energy and nutrient intakes, plasma fatty acids, and a drop in
weight from 79.1 (12.5) kg on the Western diet to 77.6 (12.0) kg on the high
carbohydrate diet (P < 0.001) confirmed a high level of compliance with experimental
diets. Total and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol fell from 5.52 (1.04) mmol/l
and 3.64 (0.88) mmol/l, respectively on the Western diet to 4.76 (1.10) mmol/l and 2.97
(0.94) mmol/l on the highcarbohydrate diet (P < 0.001). HDL cholesterol fell from 1.21
(0.27) mmol/l on the Western diet to 1.07 (0.23) mmol/l on the highcarbohydrate diet (P
= 0.057), but the LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio improved from 3.17 (1.05) on the Western
diet to 2.88 (0.97) on the highcarbohydrate diet (P = 0.004). Fasting triglyceride levels
were unchanged throughout the study. CONCLUSIONS: Replacement of saturated fat
with carbohydrate from grains, vegetables, legumes, and fruit reduces total and
LDL cholesterol with only a minor effect on HDL cholesterol and triglyceride. It
seems that when free living individuals change to a fibre rich highcarbohydrate diet
appropriate food choices lead to a modest weight reduction. This may explain why 13 the marked elevation of triglyceride and reduction of HDL cholesterol observed on
strictly controlled highcarbohydrate diets may not occur when such diets are followed in
practice. 14. Nutritional intakes in communitydwelling older Japanese adults: high
intakes of energy and protein based on high consumption of fish,
vegetables and fruits provide sufficient micronutrients. Watanabe R , Hanamori K, Kadoya H, Nishimuta M, Miyazaki H. Course of Food
and Nutrition, Department of Human Life Environments, Niigata Women's College,
Niigata 9508680, Japan. reiwata@fnh.nicol.ac.jp J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2004 Jun;50(3):18495. The purpose of this study was to obtain detailed data on the dietary intake of
energy, macronutrients, and micronutrients, especially minerals and vitamins, of
healthy freeliving people over the age of 70 in Japan and to clarify the correlations
among nutrient intakes . The survey was conducted in November 2001 for 57 persons
(men: 31, women: 26) aged 74 y (born in 1927) living in Niigata City, Japan. A precise
weighing method was used to record food intake for three consecutive days. Nutrient
intake was calculated based on the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan (5th
ed.). The intakes of energy and total protein were 44.8+/7.7 kcal/kg/d and 1.80+/0.35
g/kg/d for men and 38.1+/7.6 kcal/ kg/d and 1.51+/0.26 g/kg/d for women. These
values are significantly higher than those proposed by the current Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDAs) and the data by the 2001 National Nutrition Survey in Japan. The
energy intake ratios from protein, carbohydrate and fat for men were 16 : 58 : 22,
respectively, and the residual part was alcohol. For women, the ratios were 16 : 62 : 22.
The proportion of total protein intake that consisted of animal protein was 57.8% for men
and 52.8% for women. For both sexes, all of the mean daily intakes of nine minerals and
12 vitamins were higher than those prescribed for elderly Japanese people (> or =70 y) in
the RDAs. Significant strong correlations were found between total protein intake and
intakes of vitamins D, B2 and B6, as well as niacin and pantothenic acid (p< 0.0001).
Among the nine minerals, the correlations were very strong between potassium and
magnesium, calcium and phosphorus, magnesium and iron, magnesium and copper, iron
and copper, and zinc and copper (r's>0.700 ). For vitamins, strong correlations were
found between vitamin A and folic acid, vitamin B2 and pantothenic acid, and folic acid
and pantothenic acid. Furthermore, strong relationships were observed between
potassium and folic acid, potassium and pantothenic acid, potassium and dietary fiber,
phosphorus and vitamin B2, phosphorus and pantothenic acid, iron and folic acid, zinc
and vitamin B12, and copper and vitamin B12 . From these results, it is evident that
age is not an important determinant of dietary intake among apparently healthy
elderly Japanese people aged 74 y. In addition, the high intake of energy and protein
in the Japanese dietary pattern, based upon high consumption of fish and/or
shellfish, vegetables, and fruits, provide sufficient minerals and vitamins. 14 15. Validity of reported energy expenditure and energy and protein
intakes in Swedish adolescent vegans and omnivores. Larsson CL , Westerterp KR, Johansson GK. Department of Food and Nutrition,
Umea University, Umea, Sweden. christel.larsson@kost.umu.se Am J Clin Nutr. 2002 Feb;75(2):26874. BACKGROUND: It is difficult to obtain accurate reports of dietary intake; therefore,
reported dietary intakes must be validated. Researchers need lowcost methods of
estimating energy expenditure to validate reports of energy intake in groups with
different lifestyles and eating habits. OBJECTIVE: We sought to validate the reported
energy expenditure and energy and protein intakes of Swedish adolescent vegans and
omnivores. DESIGN: We compared 16 vegans (7 females and 9 males; mean age: 17.4
+/ 0.8 y) with 16 omnivores matched for sex, age, and height. Energy expenditure as
reported in a physical activity interview and energy and protein intakes as reported by
diet history were validated by using the doubly labeled water method and by measuring
urinary nitrogen excretion. RESULTS: The validity of reported energy expenditure
and energy and protein intakes was not significantly different between vegans and
omnivores. The physical activity interview had a bias toward underestimating energy
expenditure by 1.4 +/ 2.6 MJ/d (95% CI: 2.4, 0.5 MJ/d). The diethistory interview had a
bias toward underestimating energy intake by 1.9 +/ 2.7 MJ/d (95% CI: 2.9, 1.0 MJ/d)
but showed good agreement with the validation method for nitrogen (protein) intake
(underestimate of 0.40 +/ 1.90 g N/d; 95% CI: 1.10, 0.29 g N/d). CONCLUSIONS: The
physical activity and diethistory interviews underestimated energy expenditure and
energy intake, respectively. Energy intake and expenditure were underestimated to the
same extent, and the degree of underestimation was not significantly different between
vegans and omnivores. Valid protein intakes were obtained with the diethistory
method for both vegans and omnivores. 16. The contribution of vegetarian diets to human health. Sabate J. Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Loma Linda University,
CA 92350, USA. jsabate@sph.llu.edu Forum Nutr. 2003;56:21820. Our knowledge is far from complete regarding the relationship between vegetarian diets
and human health. However, scientific advances in the last decades have considerably
changed the role that vegetarian diets may play in human nutrition. Components of a
healthy vegetarian diet include a variety of vegetables, fruits, whole grain cereals,
legumes and nuts . Numerous studies show important and quantifiable benefits of the
different components of vegetarian diets, namely the reduction of risk for many
chronic diseases and the increase in longevity. Such evidence is derived from the study 15 of vegetarians as well as other populations. While meat intake has been related to
increased risk for a variety of chronic diseases, an abundant consumption of
vegetables, fruits, cereals, nuts, and legumes all have been independently related
with a lower risk for several chronic degenerative diseases, such as ischemic heart
disease, diabetes, obesity, and many cancers. Hence, whole foods of plant origin
seem to be beneficial on their own merit for chronic disease prevention. This is
possibly more certain than the detrimental effects of meats. Vegetarian diets, as any other
diet pattern, have potential health risks, namely marginal intake of essential nutrients.
However, from the public health viewpoint the health benefits of a wellplanned
vegetarian diet far outweigh the potential risks. 17. Adequacy of a vegetarian diet at old age (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance
System). Brants HA, Lowik MR, Westenbrink S, Hulshof KF, Kistemaker C. TNOCIVO
Toxicology and Nutrition Institute, Department of Human Nutrition, Zeist, The
Netherlands. J Am Coll Nutr. 1990 Aug;9(4):292302. To assess the adequacy of a vegetarian diet at old age, the dietary intake (assessed
through dietary history with crosscheck) of 44 apparently healthy lacto(ovo
)vegetarians, aged 6597 years, was evaluated. Adequacy was assessed by a
comparison of nutrient intake with (Dutch) recommendations and by evaluating data on
nutritional status. The results were also compared with data of elderly omnivores. In
contrast to elderly omnivores, percentages of energy from protein (13%), fat (37%), and
carbohydrates (50%) as well as P/S ratio ( 0.63) were close to or within the range of
Dutch guidelines regarding a healthy diet (percentages of energy from protein, fat, and
carbohydrates 1015, 3035, and 55%, respectively: P/S ratio 0.51.0). For most of the
micronutrients studied intake was adequate, and nutrient density of the vegetarian diet
was higher than of the omnivorous diet. However, the supply of zinc (average daily
intake 8.5 and 7.6 mg for men and women, respectively), iron (because of lower
bioavailability of nonheme iron), vitamin B12 (women only: intake 2.3 micrograms/day),
and water (daily intake less than 1600 ml for 30% of the vegetarians) need special
attention, considering the relatively high prevalence of a marginal status of these
nutrients. In conclusion, a lacto(ovo)vegetarian diet can be adequate at old age,
provided that it is carefully planned, especially with respect to the supply of iron,
zinc, and vitamin B12. 18. [Vegetarian nutrition: Preventive potential and possible risks. Part 1:
Plant foods] [Article in German] 16 Strohle A , Waldmann A, Wolters M, Hahn A. Abteilung Ernahrungsphysiologie und
Humanernahrung, Institut fur Lebensmittelwissenschaft, Leibniz Universitat Hannover,
Hannover, Germany. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2006 Oct;118(1920):58093. Today vegetarian nutrition is more accepted and widespread in Europe than in former
years. For a long time scientific research on vegetarian diets has focused mostly on
malnutrition, whereas nowadays research centers increasingly on the preventive potential
of plantbased diets. We followed a nutritive and a metabolicepidemiological
approach to obtain dietary recommendations. A MEDLINE research was performed
for all plant food groups relevant for a vegetarian diet (key words: all relevant food
groups, "vegetarian diet", "chronic disease", "cancer", "cardiovascular disease", "diabetes
mellitus", "osteoporosis"). All relevant food groups were characterized regarding their
nutrient content and rated with respect to the available metabolicepidemiological
evidence. Based on the evidence criteria of the WHO/FAO, cancer risk reduction by
a high intake of vegetables and fruits is assessed as probable or possible, while a
lowered risk of cardiovascular disease is convincing and a lowered risk of
osteoporosis is probable. The evidence of a risk reducing effect of whole grain
relating to colorectal cancer is assessed as possible, whereas it is probable relating to
cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus type 2. There is an insufficient risk
reducing effect of legumes like soja relating to epithelial tumours and cardiovascular
disease. The evidence of a riskreducing effect of nuts to cardiovascular disease is
assessed as probable, and in relation to cholelithiasis and diabetes mellitus type 2 as
possible and insufficient, respectively. In conclusion, high consumption of fruits,
vegetables, whole grains and nuts can lower the risk for several chronic diseases . 19. [Vegetarian nutrition: preventive potential and possible risks. Part 2:
animal foods and recommendations] [Article in German] Strohle A, Waldmann A, Wolters M, Hahn A. Abteilung Ernahrungsphysiologie und
Humanernahrung, Institut fur Lebensmittelwissenschaft, Zentrum Angewandte Chemie
der Universitat Hannover, Deutschland. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2006 Dec;118(2324):72837. INTRODUCTION: As shown in the first part of this article, consuming high amounts of
fruits, vegetables, whole grains and nuts can lower the risk for several chronic diseases.
However, the relevance of animal foods consumed within a vegetarian diet is less well
known. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We followed a nutritive and a metabolic
epidemiological approach to obtain dietary recommendations. A MEDLINEresearch was
performed for all animal food groups relevant with a vegetarian diet (key words: "eggs",
"milk", "dietary pattern" "vegetarian diet", "cancer", "cardiovascular disease", "diabetes
mellitus", "osteoporosis", "vitamin D", "vitamin B(12)", "iron", "iodine"). All relevant 17 food groups were characterized regarding their nutrient content and rated with respect to
the available metabolicepidemiological evidence. RESULTS: Based on the evidence
criteria of the WHO/FAO, colorectal cancer risk reduction by a high intake of milk
and milk products is assessed as probable, while a higher risk of prostate and
ovarial carcinomas is also probable. The evidence of a riskincreasing effect of eggs
relating to cardiovascular disease, colorectal cancer and breast cancer is assessed as
probable. As the data of prospective cohort studies suggest, a prudent diet pattern
characterized high in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and nuts is associated with a
lower risk of coronary heart disease and diabetes mellitus type 2. In contrast, there is
no overall association between prudent diet pattern and risk of breast cancer or colorectal
cancer. The critical key nutrients for vegetarians are vitamin D and B12, iodine and iron.
CONCLUSION: For the first time evidence based dietary recommendations were
provided for persons on a vegetarian diet in the DACHregion. 20. Health aspects of vegetarian diets. Dwyer JT. Tufts University School of Medicine, New England Medical Center
Hospital, Boston, MA 02111. Am J Clin Nutr. 1988 Sep;48(3 Suppl):71238. Recent studies of vegetarian diets and their effects on morbidity and mortality are
reviewed. Vegetarian diets are heterogeneous as are their effects on nutritional status,
health, and longevity. Mortality rates are similar or lower for vegetarians than for
nonvegetarians. Risks of dietary deficiency disease are increased on vegan but not on all
vegetarian diets. Evidence for decreased risks for certain chronic degenerative diseases
varies. Both vegetarian dietary and lifestyle practices are involved. Data are strong that
vegetarians are at lesser risk for obesity, atonic constipation, lung cancer, and
alcoholism. Evidence is good that risks for hypertension, coronary artery disease,
type II diabetes, and gallstones are lower. Data are only fair to poor that risks of
breast cancer, diverticular disease of the colon, colonic cancer, calcium kidney
stones, osteoporosis, dental erosion, and dental caries are lower among vegetarians .
Reduced risks for chronic degenerative diseases can also be achieved by manipulations of
omnivorous diets and lifestyles. 21. Free radical disease prevention and nutrition. KrajcovicovaKudlackova M, Ursinyova M, Blazicek P, Spustova V, Ginter E,
Hladikova V, Klvanova J. Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine, Bratislava,
Slovakia. Kudlackova@upkm.sk Bratisl Lek Listy. 2003;104(2):648. 18 An improved antioxidant status (overthreshold plasma values of essential
antioxidants) minimizes the oxidative damage. The levels of antioxidant vitamins C
and E, ,,antioxidant" trace elements selenium, zinc, copper and iron were measured
in two groups of adults with different nutritional habitsalternative (vegetarians;
n=110) and traditional (mixed diet, control, n=101) . The prevalence of iron and zinc
deficiencies was found in the alternative group (20% vs 11%iron, 13% vs 9%zinc) as
a consequence of higher intake of plant trace element absorption inhibitors. As opposed
to the latter, the control group had higher findings of iron and copper levels over the
optimal range (18% vs 8%iron, 11% vs 2%copper). The subjects on mixed diet was
showed a significant negative linear correlation between serum zinc and iron levels. This
favourable relationship means a decrease in Fenton reaction by indirect zinc effect.
Average plasma values of vitamin C, vitamin C/vitamin E, vitamin E/ cholesterol
(LDL protection), vitamin E/triacylglycerols (polyunsaturated fatty acid protection)
in vegetarians are over the threshold with high number of individual overthreshold
values (94% vs 17%vitamin C, 100% vs 58%vitamin C/vitamin E, 89% vs 68%
vitamin E/cholesterol, 100% vs 64%vitamin E/triacylglycerols). Homocysteine levels
in vegetarians (36% atherogenic levels) correlate significantly inversely to vitamin C
levels, the fact of which means a positive vitamin C effect in free radical remove also
in hyperhomocysteinemia. Plant food is a rich source of antioxidants. A correct
vegetarian nutrition or optimized mixed diets with regular and frequent
consumption of protective food commodities may be an effective contribution to the
agerelated chronic degenerative disease prevention . (Tab. 2, Fig. 2, Ref. 31.). 22. Selected vitamins and trace elements in blood of vegetarians. KrajcovicovaKudlackova M, Simoncic R, Babinska K, Bederova A, Brtkova A,
Magalova T, Grancicova E. Research Institute of Nutrition, Bratislava, Slovakia. Ann Nutr Metab. 1995;39(6):3349. Selected vitamin (A, C, E, betacarotene) and trace element (selenium, zinc, copper)
levels were estimated in the blood of 67 vegetarian nonsmokers aged 3460 years.
The average period of lacto or lactoovovegetarianism was 6.2 years. The results were
compared with those of 75 nonvegetarians of the same age and living in the same
region. Vegetarians had significantly higher plasma levels of essential antioxidants:
vitamin C, betacarotene, and vitamin A. A significantly higher molar ratio vitamin
E/cholesterol indicates a more effective protection especially of lowdensity
lipoproteins against peroxidation . Oxidation of lowdensity lipoproteins represents one
of the key factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. The molar ratio vitamin
E/total lipids was significantly higher in plasma of vegetarians, demonstrating a
more effective protection of polyunsaturated fatty acids against peroxidation .
Vegetarians had significantly higher plasma levels of selenium and similar levels of
zinc and copper when compared to nonvegetarians. These trace elements are
important for the activity of antioxidant enzymes. The results document a beneficial
effect of vegetarian nutritional habits on antioxidative parameters and thus on the 19 reduction of cardiovascular diseases and cancer risk. Reactive products of oxygen
metabolism and subsequent toxic products of lipid peroxidation play an important
role in the etiology of these diseases. 23. Antioxidant status in vegetarians versus omnivores. Rauma AL, Mykkanen H. Department of Teacher Education, University of Joensuu,
Savonlinna, Finland. AnnaLiisa.Rauma@joensuu.fi Nutrition. 2000 Feb;16(2):1119. Every day, vegetarians consume many carbohydraterich plant foods such as fruits
and vegetables, cereals, pulses, and nuts. As a consequence, their diet contains more
antioxidant vitamins (vitamin C, vitamin E, and betacarotene) and copper than
that of omnivores. Intake of zinc is generally comparable to that by omnivores .
However, the bioavailability of zinc in vegetarian diets is generally lower than that of
omnivores. Dietary intake of selenium is variable in both groups and depends on the
selenium content of the soil. Measurements of antioxidant body levels in vegetarians
show that a vegetarian diet maintains higher antioxidant vitamin status (vitamin C,
vitamin E, betacarotene) but variable antioxidant trace element status as compared
with an omnivorous diet. To evaluate the antioxidative potential of a vegetarian diet
versus an omnivorous diet, more studies are needed in which the total antioxidant
capacity is determined rather than the status of a single antioxidant nutrient. 24. Antioxidant status in longterm adherents to a strict uncooked vegan
diet. Rauma AL, Torronen R, Hanninen O, Verhagen H, Mykkanen H. Department of
Clinical Nutrition, University of Kuopio, Finland. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Dec;62(6):12217. Antioxidant status was investigated in 20 Finnish middleaged female vegans and in
one male vegan who were following a strict, uncooked vegan diet ("living food
diet"), by means of a dietary survey and biochemical measurements (blood
concentrations of vitamins C and E and betacarotene, and the activities of the
zinc/copperdependent superoxide dismutase and seleniumdependent glutathione
peroxidase). Values were compared with those of omnivores matched for sex, age, social
status, and residence. Antioxidant supplementation was used by 4 of 20 female vegans
and by 11 of 20 control subjects. Based on dietary records, the vegans had significantly
higher intakes of betacarotene, vitamin E, vitamin C, and copper, and a significantly
lower intake of selenium than the omnivorous control subjects. The calculated dietary
antioxidant intakes by the vegans, expressed as percentages of the US recommended
dietary allowances, were as follows: 305% of vitamin C, 247% of vitamin A, 313% of
vitamin E, 92% of zinc, 120% of copper, and 49% of selenium. Compared with the 20 omnivores, the vegans had significantly higher blood concentrations of betacarotene,
vitamin C, and vitamin E, as well as higher erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity.
These differences were also seen in pairs who were using no antioxidant supplements .
The present data indicate that the "living food diet" provides significantly more
dietary antioxidants than does the cooked, omnivorous diet, and that the longterm
adherents to this diet have a better antioxidant status than do omnivorous control
subjects. 25. Dietary intakes and blood concentrations of antioxidant vitamins in
German vegans. Waldmann A , Koschizke JW , Leitzmann C, Hahn A. Institute of Food Science,
University of Hanover, Germany. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2005 Jan;75(1):2836. We report on an evaluation of intake and blood concentrations of antioxidant
vitamins in a crosssectional study of 104 German vegans, and examine the
association between blood concentration of antioxidant vitamins and their intake as
well as fruit and vegetable intake . Comparisons are made with dietary reference
intakes and established threshold values (ETV) for blood concentrations. Mean intakes
of vitamin C, E, and betacarotene were higher than actual recommendations, but
comparable to reported intakes in other vegan cohorts. Mean blood concentrations were
0.76 micromol/L for betacarotene and 117 micromol/L for vitamin C, so that nearly all
participants showed concentrations that were above the ETV for the prevention of
chronic diseases. Although mean vitamin E intake was 24.8 mg/day, only 32% of female
and 18% of male participants showed plasma concentrations above the ETV. However,
the mean vitamin E/cholesterol ratio was high (5.97), indicating a good protection of low
density lipoprotein (LDL) against peroxidation. Of the reported antioxidant vitamins,
only plasma vitamin C concentration was a good biomarker of fruit and vegetable
intake. The high concentration of antioxidative compounds in plasma may be one of
the reasons for the lower incidence of chronic diseases in people consuming a plant
only diet. 26. Does a vegetarian diet influence genomic stability? Kazimirova A, Barancokova M, Volkovova K, Staruchova M, Krajcovicova
Kudlackova M, Wsolova L, Collins AR, Dusinska M. Institute of Preventive and
Clinical Medicine, Limbova 14, 83301, Bratislava, Slovakia. Eur J Nutr. 2004 Feb;43(1):328. Epub 2004 Jan 6. 21 BACKGROUND: The vegetarian lifestyle is supposedly healthy, and differences
between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in biomarkers related to diseases such as
cancer might be expected . AIM OF THE STUDY: To investigate the possible role of
different diets in maintaining genomic stability. METHODS: The vegetarian group,
consisting of 24 volunteers (13 women and 11 men), were matched for age and sex with
24 volunteers (12 women and 12 men) with a traditional dietary habit.Among vegetarians
there were 13 lactoovovegetarians (8 women, 5 men) with average length of vegetarian
diet 10.8 years (ranging from 5 to 26) and 11 lactovegetarians (5 women, 6 men) with
average length of vegetarian diet 8.2 years (ranging from 3 to15). All volunteers were
nonsmokers, nonconsumers of alcohol and had similar education and patterns of
physical activity. Chromosome aberrations, micronuclei and DNA damage (strand
breaks, oxidised bases and H(2)O(2)sensitivity) were examined in peripheral blood
lymphocytes of vegetarians and nonvegetarians. Plasma antioxidant status was assessed
with the FRAP assay. RESULTS: We did not find any differences in percentage of cells
with chromosome aberrations or in the frequency of micronuclei between vegetarians and
nonvegetarians or between lactoovo and lactovegetarians. There was no statistically
significant difference in total antioxidant capacity between the groups. The group with
traditional dietary habits had significantly higher levels of oxidative DNA damage (strand
breaks and oxidised purines, P = 0.005) compared with vegetarians. A significant positive
correlation between age and oxidative DNA damage (net FPGsensitive sites) was found
in nonvegetarians, while there was an opposite trend towards a negative association in
vegetarians. On the other hand chromosome aberrations correlated with age in
vegetarians (r = 0.48, P = 0.017) but not in nonvegetarians. CONCLUSIONS: Our
results indicate that a vegetarian diet can lead to a slight decrease in oxidative DNA
damage in lymphocytes, but other markers of genetic stability are not affected. The
lowest level of DNA damage was found in lymphocytes of lactovegetarians,
(especially oxidised pyrimidines, P = 0.0017), suggesting that this diet provides some
protection against oxidative stress. 22 II. Excretory System 1. LowProtein Vegetarian Diet with AlphaChetoanalogues Prior to Pre
emptive PancreasKidney Transplantation. Piccoli GB , Motta D, Martina G, Consiglio V, Gai M, Mezza E, Maddalena E,
Burdese M, Colla L, Tattoli F, Anania P, Rossetti M, Soragna G, Grassi G, Dani F,
Jeantet A, Segoloni GP. Chair of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine,
University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 16, 10126 Torino, Italy. Rev Diabet Stud. 2004 Summer;1(2):95102. Epub 2004 Aug 10. BACKGROUND: Preemptive pancreaskidney transplanttation is increasingly
considered the best therapy for irreversible chronic kidney disease (CKD) in type 1
diabetics. However, the best approach in the wait for transplantation has not yet been
defined. AIM: To evaluate our experience with a lowprotein (0.6 g/kg/day) vegetarian
diet supplemented with alphachetoanalogues in type 1 diabetic patients in the wait for
pancreaskidney transplantation. METHODS: Prospective study. Information on the
progression of renal disease, compliance, metabolic control, reasons for choice and for
dropout were recorded prospectively; the data for the subset of patients who underwent
the diet while awaiting a pancreaskidney graft are analysed in this report. RESULTS:
From November 1998 to April 2004, 9 type 1 diabetic patients, waitlisted or performing
tests for waitlisting for pancreaskidney transplantation, started the diet. All of them
were followed by nephrologists and diabetologists, in the context of integrated care.
There were 4 males and 5 females; median age 38 years (range 27.945.5); median
diabetes duration 23.8 years (range 16.633.1), 8/9 with widespread organ damage;
median creatinine at the start of the diet: 3.2 mg/dl (1.27.2); 4 patients followed the diet
to transplantation, 2 are presently on the diet, 2 dropped out and started dialysis after a
few months, 1 started dialysis (rescue treatment). The nutritional status remained stable,
glycemia control improved in 4 patients in the short term and in 2 in the long term, no
hyperkalemia, acidosis or other relevant side effect was recorded. Proteinuria decreased
in 5 cases, in 3 from the nephrotic range. Albumin levels remained stable; the progression
rate was a loss of 0.47 ml/min of creatinine clearance per month (ranging from an
increase of 0.06 to a decrease of 2.4 ml/min) during the diet period (estimated by the
CockroftGault formula). CONCLUSIONS: Lowprotein supplemented vegetarian
diets may be a useful tool to slow CKD progression whilst awaiting pancreaskidney
transplantation. 23 2. [Nutrition and colorectal cancer] [Article in German] Strohle A, Maike W, Hahn A. Institut fur Lebensmittelwissenschaft, Zentrum
Angewandte Chemie, Universitat Hannover, Wunstorfer Str. 14, 30453 Hannover.
alexander.stroehle@lw.unihannover.de Med Monatsschr Pharm. 2007 Jan;30(1):2532. Diet plays an important role in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer. Current prospective
cohort studies and metaanalysis enable a reevaluation of how food or nutrients such as
fiber and fat influence cancer risk. Based on the evidence criteria of the WHO/FAD,
risk reduction by a high intake of fruit is assessed as possible, while a lowered risk
by a high vegetable intake is probable. Especially raw vegetables and fruits seem to
exert anticancer properties. The evidence of a risk reducing effect of whole grain
relating to colorectal cancer is assessed as probable whereas the evidence of an
increased risk by high consumption of refined white flour products and sweets is (still)
insufficient despite some evidences. There is a probable risk reducing effect of milk and
dairy products. e available data on eggs and red meat indicate a possible risk
increasing influence. Stronger clues for a risk increasing effect have been shown for
meat products leading to an evidence assessed as probable. Owing to varied
interpretations of the data on fiber, the evidence of a risk reducing effect relating to
colorectal cancer is assessed as possible or insufficient. The available data on alcohol
consumption indicate a possible risk increasing effect. In contrast to former evaluations,
diets rich in fat seem to increase colorectal cancer risk only indirectly as part of a
hypercaloric diet by advancing the obesity risk. Thus, the evidence of obesity, especially
visceral obesity, as a risk of colorectal cancer is judged as convincing today. Prospective
cohort studies suggest that people who get higher than average amounts of folic acid from
multivitamin supplements have lower risks of colorectal cancer. The evidence for a risk
reducing effect of calcium, selenium, vitamin D and vitamin E on colorectal cancer is
insufficient. As primary prevention, a diet rich in vegetables, fruits, whole grain
products, and legumes added by lowfat dairy products, fish, and poultry can be
recommended. In contrast the consumption of sweets, refined white flour products
and meat products should be reduced. 3. Diet and risk of colorectal cancer in a cohort of Finnish men. Pietinen P, Malila N, Virtanen M, Hartman TJ, Tangrea JA, Albanes D, Virtamo J.
Department of Nutrition, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland. Cancer Causes Control. 1999 Oct;10(5):38796. OBJECTIVES: Based on previous epidemiological studies, high fat and meat
consumption may increase and fiber, calcium, and vegetable consumption may decrease
the risk of colorectal cancer. We sought to address these hypotheses in a male Finnish 24 cohort. METHODS: We analyzed data from the AlphaTocopherol, BetaCarotene
Cancer Prevention Study (ATBC Study) where 27, 111 male smokers completed a
validated dietary questionnaire at baseline. After an average of 8 years of followup, we
documented 185 cases of colorectal cancer. The analyses were carried out using the Cox
proportional hazards model. RESULTS: The relative risk (RR) for men in the highest
quartile of calcium intake compared with men in the lowest quartile was 0.6 (95% CI 0.4
0.9, p for trend 0.04). Likewise, the intake of milk protein and the consumption of milk
products was inversely associated with risk of colorectal cancer. However, intake of
dietary fiber was not associated with risk, nor was fat intake. Consumption of meat or
different types of meat, and fried meat, fruits or vegetables were not associated with risk.
CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of men consuming a diet high in fat, meat, and
fiber and low in vegetables, high calcium intake was associated with lowered risk of
colorectal cancer. 4. Comparison of a vegetablebased (soya) and an animalbased low
protein diet in predialysis chronic renal failure patients. Soroka N , Silverberg DS, Greemland M, Birk Y, Blum M, Peer G, Iaina A.
Department of Nephrology, Tel Aviv Medical Center, Israel. Nephron. 1998;79(2):17380. There is some experimental evidence to suggest that progression of chronic renal
failure (CRF) is slower on diets based on soya protein than on diets based on animal
protein . We have compared the effect of a soyabased vegetarian lowprotein diet
(VPD) and an animalbased lowprotein diet (APD) in 15 patients with CRF. 15
patients with CRF (51CrEDTAmeasured glomerular filtration rate 1550 ml/min/1.73
m2) were studied. In a randomized crossover trial, the patients were given each diet (each
containing 0.75 g protein and 32 kcal per kilogram body weight) for a 6month period.
Nine patients completed the trial, 2 others dropped out because they could not tolerate the
VPD, 3 because of unrelated medical complications, and 1 for technical reasons. The
caloric intake was higher and the protein, phosphate and essential amino acid intake
lower on the VPD than on the APD. The compliance with the suggested caloric intake
was better with the VPD than with the APD (97 vs. 88% of recommended intake), as was
the compliance with the suggested protein intake (94 vs. 112% of recommended intake)
and with the suggested phosphate intake (102 vs. 116%). The mean glomerular filtration
rate, as judged by 51CrEDTA, was similar after 6 months on each diet and remained
unchanged throughout the entire year of the study. The rate of fall of glomerular
filtration, as measured by the slope of 1/serum creatinine was slowed by 73% during the
1year study period as compared with the prestudy period. Nutritional status (as measured
by body mass index, midarm circumference, and lean body mass and percent body fat),
serum transferrin, cholesterol and albumin, and total lymphocyte count were similar on
the two diets. The serum albumin level on both diets, however, was significantly higher
on the two diets than during the prediet period. Blood urea nitrogen, urine urea nitrogen, 25 protein catabolic rate, and 24hour urine creatinine and phosphate were lower on the VPD
than on the APD. The 24hour protein excretion was similar on the two diets. The two
lowprotein diets resulted in a slowing in the progression of CRF. A VPD is well
tolerated in CRF and is associated with lower protein and phosphate intakes and a
higher caloric intake than an APD and may, therefore, be used as a safe alternative
or partial substitute for the usual APD in CRF. 5. A lownitrogen lowphosphorus Vegan diet for patients with chronic
renal failure. Barsotti G , Morelli E , Cupisti A, Meola M, Dani L, Giovannetti S. Clinica Medica
I, Universita di Pisa, Italia. Nephron. 1996;74(2):3904. The nutritional treatment of chronic renal failure with a lowprotein low
phosphorus diet (conventional lowprotein diet, CLPD) is effective in reducing
uremic intoxication, slowing the progression of renal failure and preventing
secondary hyperparathyroidism. Unfortunately, in some patients, the poor palatability
and the high cost of the proteinfree substitutes, together with difficulties in following the
diet away from home, can make good compliance difficult, possibly causing low energy
intake and malnutrition. Here the results are reported of an attempt we made to overcome
these drawbacks, using a diet supplying only natural foods of plant origin in definite
proportions to give an essential amino acid supply satisfying the recommended
dietary allowance. This is possible thanks to an appropriate cereallegume mixture,
supplying proteins complementary for essential amino acids. Additional positive
features of this special vegan diet (SVD) are the high ratio of unsaturated to
saturated fatty acids, the absence of cholesterol, and the lower net acid production
in comparison with a mixed diet. This study indicates that the results obtained with
the SVD are similar to those obtained with the CLPD. Therefore the SVD can be a
substitute for the CLPD in the management of patients with mild chronic renal
failure. The SVD is the diet of choice when products made of starch are not
available or poorly tolerated . 6. Cardiovascular risk factors in severe chronic renal failure: the role of
dietary treatment. Bergesio F , Monzani G, Guasparini A, Ciuti R, Gallucci M, Cristofano C,
Castrignano E, Cupisti A, Barsotti G, Marcucci R, Abbate R, Bandini S, Gallo M,
Tosi PL, Salvadori M. Department of Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplantation,
Azienda Ospedale Careggi, Florence, Italy. fraberge@tin.it Clin Nephrol. 2005 Aug;64(2):10312. 26 BACKGROUND: Lipoprotein abnormalities and increased oxidized LDL (OxLDL)
are often observed in uremia and are reported to play a central role in the
development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Vegan diet, known for its better
lipoprotein profile and antioxidant vitamins content, could protect against CVD.
Aim of this study was to investigate the influence of vegan diet supplemented with
essential amino acids (EAA) and ketoanalogues (VSD) on both traditional and non
traditional cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF). METHODS: Twentynine patients (18
M, 11 F) aged 55 years (range 2979 years) with advanced chronic renal failure (median
sCr: 5.6 mg/dl) on very low protein vegetarian diet (0.3 g/kg/day) supplemented with a
mixture of EAA and ketoacids (VSD) and 31 patients (20 M, 11 F) aged 65 years (range
29 82 years) on conventional lowprotein diet (CD: 0.6 g/kg/day) with a similar renal
function (median sCr: 5.2 mg/dl), were investigated for lipids and apolipoprotein
parameters (traditional CVRF) as well as for oxidative stress (oxidized LDL, antibodies
against OxLDL and thiobarbituric acidreactive substances (TBARS)), total
homocysteine (tHcy), lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)), albumin and creactive protein (CRP) (non
traditional CVRF) including vitamins A, E, B12 and folic acid. RESULTS: Compared to
patients on CD, those on VSD showed increased HDL cholesterol levels (p < 0.005) with
a reduction of LDL cholesterol (p < 0.01) and an increase of apoA1/apoB ratio (p < 0.02).
Among nontraditional CVRF, a mild but significant reduction of OxLDL (p < 0.05) with
lower TBARS concentrations (p < 0.01) and a significant reduction of total homocysteine
(p < 0.002), Lp(a) (p < 0.002) and CRP levels (p < 0.05) were also observed in these
patients. Concentrations of vitamin E and A were not different between the two groups
while vitamin B12 and folic acid resulted markedly increased in patients on VSD.
OxLDL significantly correlated with total and LDL cholesterol, triglycerides and Apo B
in CD but not in VSD patients. Patients on CD also showed a significant correlation
between urea and CRP. After a multivariate analysis, only urea (p < 0.001) and OxLDL
(p < 0.006) were associated to a risk of CRP > 0.3 mg/dl. CONCLUSIONS: These
results indicate a better lipoprotein profile in patients on vegan diet including non
traditional CVRF. In particular, these patients show a reduced oxidative stress with
a reduced acutephase response (CRP) as compared to patients on conventional diet.
We hypothesize that urea, significantly lower in patients on VSD, may account,
possibly together with the reduction of other protein breakdown products, for the
decreased acutephase response observed in these patients. Our findings suggest
that lowprotein diets, and vegan in particular, may exert a beneficial effect on the
development of cardiovascular disease in patients with endstage renal disease
(ESRD). 7. Lp(a) levels: effects of progressive chronic renal failure and dietary
manipulation. Monzani G , Bergesio F , Ciuti R, Ciciani AM, Martinelli F, Rosati A, Salvadori M.
Department of Nephrology, USL Azienda 10, Florence, Italy. 27 J Nephrol. 1997 JanFeb;10(1):415. Patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) have an increased risk of cardiovascular
disease (CVD). Elevated lipoprotein(a) (LP(a)) levels have been shown to be an
important risk factor for CVD. This study examined Lp(a) changes during the
progression of renal disease in patients following different dietary regimens. Fifty
seven patients with CRF of different etiology and degree (mean age 58 +/ 10 yrs) were
divided into four groups according to their serum creatinine (sCr) levels. The first group
had sCr 1.53; the second 36; the third > 6, all on a conventional lowprotein diet
(CLPD), and the fourth had sCr > 6 on a supplemented vegetarian diet (SVD). Lp(a),
apoproteins AI, B, E, CII, CIII, CII/CIII, Apo A/Apo B ratios and the lipid pattern (total
cholesterol (TC) and its fractions LDL, HDL, HDL3 and triglycerides) were investigated.
Patients with diabetes, proteinuria > 1.5 g/24 h, hepatic disease or taking contraceptives
or lipid lowering drugs were excluded. Results were compared with a reference group (N
= 12) with sCcr < 1. Lp(a) concentrations increased with the progression of renal failure,
and a significant correlation was observed with sCr. Despite the elevated sCr levels,
patients on the SVD had an almost normal Lp(a) concentration. Only 15% of the
reference group had Lp(a) levels > 30 mg/dl, compared to 33%, 50% and 78% of the 1st,
2nd and 3rd groups and 38% of the 4th group. No relationship was found between Lp(a),
lipids or apoproteins. Our results indicate that renal function influences Lp(a) levels
and suggest a SVD helps to lower them. This might be ascribed to some antioxidant
factors in the SVD. 8. Autoantibodies against oxidized LDL in chronic renal failure: role of
renal function, diet, and lipids. Bergesio F , Monzani G, Ciuti R, Cirami C, Martinelli F, Salvadori M, Tosi PL. Nephrology and Dialysis Units, Azienda Ospedaliera Careggi, Florence, Italy. Nephron. 2001 Feb;87(2):12733. Lipid peroxidation (LP) has recently been suggested to trigger the atherosclerotic
process as well as to worsen the progression of renal disease. Autoantibodies against
oxidized lowdensity lipoproteins (OxLDLAb) were considered to provide a sensitive
marker to detect LDL oxidation in vivo. To date few studies have been reported on Ox
LDLAb levels in patients with different degrees of renal failure. The aim of this study
was to evaluate the influences of renal function, dietary manipulation, and lipids on Ox
LDLAb concentrations in uremic patients either on conservative or replacement therapy.
Seventyone patients (42 males, 29 females) aged 60 +/ 19 years with chronic renal
failure (CRF) of different etiology and degree were divided into four groups according
to serum creatinine levels [sCr(mg/dl)] and diet: CRF I > or = 1.53.0, CRF II > 3.05.5,
and CRF III > 5.5 were all patients on a conventional lowprotein diet, while a fourth
group included patients on a vegetarian diet supplemented with keto analogues and amino 28 acids (CRF SD >3.0). A further group was represented by patients on dialysis therapy.
All patients were examined for OxLDLAb, triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol, HDL
and LDL cholesterol, and apolipoproteins Apo A1, Apo B, and Lp(a). The results were
compared with those of 20 controls (9 males and 11 females) aged 52 +/ 11 years with
sCr < 1.5 mg/dl. OxLDLAb increased, although not significantly, with TG and Lp(a)
from the early stages of CRF along with the deterioration of renal function. However, TG
and Lp(a) levels were significantly higher in all groups of patients except those on
vegetarian diet (CRF SD). This group also showed the lowest OxLDLAb levels. No
relationship was observed between lipids or apolipoproteins and OxLDLAb.
Hyperlipidemic patients did not show higher OxLDLAb levels than normolipidemics.
Our results show a progressive increase of LP as the renal function declines, which
may account for the increased risk of cardiovascular disease reported in uremia.
Dialysis does not correct significantly the oxidative state observed in patients with
endstage renal disease. Vegan diet, by reducing LP, TG, and Lp(a), is supposed to
decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease and worth being reconsidered as an
alternative effective therapeutic tool in patients with advanced CRF. Copyright 2001
S. Karger AG, Basel. III. Circulatory System 1. Hypertension and blood pressure among meat eaters, fish eaters,
vegetarians and vegans in EPICOxford. Appleby PN , Davey GK, Key TJ. Cancer Research UK, Epidemiology Unit,
University of Oxford, Gibson Building, The Radcliffe Infirmary, UK.
Paul.Appleby@cancer.org.uk Public Health Nutr. 2002 Oct;5(5):64554. OBJECTIVE: To compare the prevalence of selfreported hypertension and mean systolic
and diastolic blood pressures in four diet groups (meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and
vegans) and to investigate dietary and other lifestyle factors that might account for any
differences observed between the groups. DESIGN: Analysis of crosssectional data from
participants in the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer
and Nutrition (EPICOxford). SETTING: United Kingdom. SUBJECTS: Eleven
thousand and four British men and women aged 2078 years at blood pressure 29 measurement. RESULTS: The ageadjusted prevalence of selfreported hypertension
was significantly different between the four diet groups, ranging from 15.0% in
male meat eaters to 5.8% in male vegans, and from 12.1% in female meat eaters to
7.7% in female vegans, with fish eaters and vegetarians having similar and
intermediate prevalences. Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures were
significantly different between the four diet groups, with meat eaters having the highest
values and vegans the lowest values. The differences in ageadjusted mean blood
pressure between meat eaters and vegans among participants with no selfreported
hypertension were 4.2 and 2.6 mmHg systolic and 2.8 and 1.7 mmHg diastolic for men
and women, respectively. Much of the variation was attributable to differences in body
mass index between the diet groups. CONCLUSIONS: Nonmeat eaters, especially
vegans, have a lower prevalence of hypertension and lower systolic and diastolic
blood pressures than meat eaters, largely because of differences in body mass index. 2. Longterm effects of a vegetarian diet on the nutritional status of elderly
people (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System). Lowik MR , Schrijver J, Odink J, van den Berg H, Wedel M. Department of Human
Nutrition, TNOCIVO Toxicology and Nutrition Institute, Zeist, The Netherlands. J Am Coll Nutr. 1990 Dec;9(6):6009. The health and nutritional status (anthropometry, and blood and urine
biochemistry) of 44 Dutch apparently healthy vegetarians, aged 6597 years,
refraining from meat, fish, and poultry consumption, was assessed for insight into
longterm consequences of ovolacto or lactovegetarianism. The results indicate that
in comparison to omnivorous elderly the vegetarian elderly (especially men) have
aged successfully with respect to cardiovascular risk factors . In contrast, vegetarian
elderly are at a higher risk for a marginal iron, zinc, and vitamin B12 status. Although
several vegetarian elderly showed low levels of 25hydroxyvitamin D in plasma and
many had low values of 24hr urine volume (per kg body weight), these values are not
likely the result of a vegetarian diet per se. It is concluded that, although some
nutritionrelated risks are prevalent among vegetarian elderly, these risks can
probably be prevented by lifestyle changes. 3. The effect of combining plant sterols, soy protein, viscous fibers, and
almonds in treating hypercholesterolemia. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner D, Vidgen E, Lapsley KG,
Trautwein EA, Parker TL, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Connelly PW. Clinical Nutrition
and Risk Factor Modification Center, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Metabolism. 2003 Nov;52(11):147883. 30 Reductions in lowdensity lipoproteincholesterol (LDLC) result from diets
containing almonds, or diets that are either low in saturated fat or high in viscous
fibers, soy proteins, or plant sterols. We have therefore combined all of these
interventions in a single diet (portfolio diet) to determine whether cholesterol
reductions could be achieved of similar magnitude to those reported in recent statin
trials which reduced cardiovascular events. Twentyfive hyperlipidemic subjects
consumed either a portfolio diet (n=13), very low in saturated fat and high in plant sterols
(1.2 g/1,000 kcal), soy protein (16.2 g/1,000 kcal), viscous fibers (8.3 g/1,000 kcal), and
almonds ( 16.6 g/1,000 kcal), or a lowsaturated fat diet (n=12) based on wholewheat
cereals and lowfat dairy foods. Fasting blood, blood pressure, and body weight were
obtained at weeks 0, 2, and 4 of each phase. LDLC was reduced by 12.1% +/ 2.4%
(P<.001) on the lowfat diet and by 35.0% +/ 3.1% (P<.001) on the portfolio diet, which
also reduced the ratio of LDLC to highdensity lipoproteincholesterol (HDLC)
significantly (30.0% +/ 3.5%; P<.001). The reductions in LDLC and the LDL:HDL
C ratio were both significantly lower on the portfolio diet than on the control diet
(P<.001 and P<.001, respectively). Mean weight loss was similar on test and control diets
( 1.0 kg and 0.9 kg, respectively). No difference was seen in blood pressure, HDLC,
serum triglycerides, lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)], or homocysteine concentrations between
diets. Combining a number of foods and food components in a single dietary
portfolio may lower LDLC similarly to statins and so increase the potential
effectiveness of dietary therapy. 4. A dietary portfolio approach to cholesterol reduction: combined effects
of plant sterols, vegetable proteins, and viscous fibers in
hypercholesterolemia. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Faulkner D, Vidgen E, Trautwein EA, Parker TL,
Marchie A, Koumbridis G, Lapsley KG, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Connelly PW.
Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, Division of Endocrinology and
Metabolism, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Metabolism. 2002 Dec;51(12):1596604. Plant sterols, soy proteins, and viscous fibers are advised for cholesterol reduction
but their combined effect has never been tested. We therefore assessed their
combined effect on blood lipids in hyperlipidemic subjects who were already
consuming a lowsaturated fat, lowcholesterol diet before starting the study . The
test (combination) diet was 1 month in duration and was very low in saturated fat and
high in plant sterols (1 g/1,000 kcal), soy protein (23 g/1,000 kcal), and viscous fibers (9
g/1,000 kcal) obtained from foods available in supermarkets and health food stores. One
subject also completed 2 further diet periods: a lowfat control diet and a control diet plus
20 mg/d lovastatin. Fasting blood lipids, blood pressure, and body weight were measured
prior to and at weekly intervals during the study. The combination diet was rated as 31 acceptable and very filling. The diet reduced lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL)cholesterol
by 29.0% +/ 2.7% (P <.001) and the ratio of LDLcholesterol to highdensity lipoprotein
(HDL)cholesterol by 26.5% +/ 3.4% (P <.001). Near maximal reductions were seen by
week 2. In the subject who took Mevacor and control diets each for 4 weeks, the
reduction in LDL:HDLcholesterol on Mevacor was similar to the combination diet. We
conclude that acceptable diets of foods from supermarkets and health food stores
that contain recognized cholesterollowering dietary components in combination (a
dietary portfolio) may be as effective as the starting dose of older firstline drugs in
managing hypercholesterolemia. Copyright 2002, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights
reserved. 5. Effects of a dietary portfolio of cholesterollowering foods vs lovastatin
on serum lipids and Creactive protein. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Wong JM, de Souza R, Emam
A, Parker TL, Vidgen E, Lapsley KG, Trautwein EA, Josse RG, Leiter LA,
Connelly PW. Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, St Michael's
Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. cyril.kendall@utoronto.ca JAMA. 2003 Jul 23;290(4):50210. CONTEXT: To enhance the effectiveness of diet in lowering cholesterol,
recommendations of the Adult Treatment Panel III of the National Cholesterol
Education Program emphasize diets low in saturated fat together with plant sterols
and viscous fibers, and the American Heart Association supports the use of soy
protein and nuts. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a diet containing all of these
recommended food components leads to cholesterol reduction comparable with that of 3
hydroxy3methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins). DESIGN:
Randomized controlled trial conducted between October and December 2002. SETTING
AND PARTICIPANTS: Fortysix healthy, hyperlipidemic adults (25 men and 21
postmenopausal women) with a mean (SE) age of 59 (1) years and body mass index of
27.6 (0.5), recruited from a Canadian hospitalaffiliated nutrition research center and the
community. INTERVENTIONS: Participants were randomly assigned to undergo 1 of 3
interventions on an outpatient basis for 1 month: a diet very low in saturated fat, based on
milled wholewheat cereals and lowfat dairy foods (n = 16; control); the same diet plus
lovastatin, 20 mg/d (n = 14); or a diet high in plant sterols (1.0 g/1000 kcal), soy
protein (21.4 g/1000 kcal), viscous fibers (9.8 g/1000 kcal), and almonds (14 g/1000
kcal) (n = 16; dietary portfolio). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Lipid and C
reactive protein levels, obtained from fasting blood samples; blood pressure; and body
weight; measured at weeks 0, 2, and 4 and compared among the 3 treatment groups.
RESULTS: The control, statin, and dietary portfolio groups had mean (SE) decreases in
lowdensity lipoprotein cholesterol of 8.0% (2.1%) (P =.002), 30.9% (3.6%) (P<.001),
and 28.6% (3.2%) (P<.001), respectively. Respective reductions in Creactive protein
were 10.0% (8.6%) (P =.27), 33.3% (8.3%) (P =.002), and 28.2% (10.8%) (P =.02). The 32 significant reductions in the statin and dietary portfolio groups were all significantly
different from changes in the control group. There were no significant differences in
efficacy between the statin and dietary portfolio treatments. CONCLUSION: In this
study, diversifying cholesterollowering components in the same dietary portfolio
increased the effectiveness of diet as a treatment of hypercholesterolemia . 6. The effect on serum lipids and oxidized lowdensity lipoprotein of
supplementing selfselected lowfat diets with solublefiber, soy, and
vegetable protein foods. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Vidgen E, Mehling CC, Parker T, Seyler H, Faulkner D,
Garsetti M, Griffin LC, Agarwal S, Rao AV, Cunnane SC, Ryan MA, Connelly PW,
Leiter LA, Vuksan V, Josse R. Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification
Center, Department of Medicine, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Metabolism. 2000 Jan;49(1):6772. An increased intake of soluble fiber and soy protein may improve the blood lipid
profile. To assess any additional benefit on serum lipids of providing soy protein
and solublefiber foods to hyperlipidemic subjects already consuming lowfat, low
cholesterol therapeutic diets, 20 hyperlipidemic men and postmenopausal women
completed 8week test and control dietary treatments in a randomized crossover
design as part of an ad libitum National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) step 2
therapeutic diet (<7% saturated fat and <200 mg/d cholesterol). During the test phase,
foods high in soy, other vegetable proteins, and soluble fiber were provided. During the
control phase, lowfat dairy and lowsolublefiber foods were provided. Fasting blood
lipid and apolipoprotein levels were measured at 4 and 8 weeks of each phase. On the test
diet, 12 +/ 2 g/d soy protein was selected from the foods chosen. Direct comparison of
test and control treatments indicated an elevated highdensity lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol concentration on the test diet ( 6.4% +/ 2.4%, P = .013) and a significantly
reduced total to HDL cholesterol ratio (5.9% +/ 2.3%, P = .020). The proportion of
conjugated dienes in the lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol fraction was
significantly reduced ( 8.5% +/ 3.3%, P = .020) as a marker of oxidized LDL. A
combination of acceptable amounts of soy, vegetable protein, and solublefiber foods
as part of a conventional lowfat, lowcholesterol therapeutic diet is effective in
further reducing serum lipid risk factors for cardiovascular disease. 7. Assessment of the longerterm effects of a dietary portfolio of
cholesterollowering foods in hypercholesterolemia. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Faulkner DA, Nguyen T, Kemp T, Marchie A, Wong JM,
de Souza R, Emam A, Vidgen E, Trautwein EA, Lapsley KG, Holmes C, Josse RG,
Leiter LA, Connelly PW, Singer W. Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification 33 Center, St Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 Mar;83(3):58291. BACKGROUND: Cholesterollowering foods may be more effective when consumed as
combinations rather than as single foods. OBJECTIVES: Our aims were to determine the
effectiveness of consuming a combination of cholesterollowering foods (dietary
portfolio) under realworld conditions and to compare these results with published data
from the same participants who had undergone 4wk metabolic studies to compare the
same dietary portfolio with the effects of a statin. DESIGN: For 12 mo, 66
hyperlipidemic participants were prescribed diets high in plant sterols (1.0 g/1000
kcal), soy protein (22.5 g/1000 kcal), viscous fibers (10 g/1000 kcal), and almonds (23
g/1000 kcal). Fiftyfive participants completed the 1y study. The 1y data were also
compared with published results on 29 of the participants who had also undergone
separate 1mo metabolic trials of a diet and a statin. RESULTS: At 3 mo and 1 y, mean
(+/SE) LDLcholesterol reductions appeared stable at 14.0 +/ 1.6% (P < 0.001) and 12.8
+/ 2.0% (P < 0.001), respectively (n = 66). These reductions were less than those
observed after the 1mo metabolic diet and statin trials. Nevertheless, 31.8% of the
participants (n = 21 of 66) had LDLcholesterol reductions of >20% at 1 y (x +/ SE:
29.7 +/ 1.6%). The LDLcholesterol reductions in this group were not significantly
different from those seen after their respective metabolically controlled portfolio or statin
treatments. A correlation was found between total dietary adherence and LDLcholesterol
change (r = 0.42, P < 0.001). Only 2 of the 26 participants with <55% compliance
achieved LDLcholesterol reductions >20% at 1 y. CONCLUSIONS: More than 30%
of motivated participants who ate the dietary portfolio of cholesterollowering foods
under realworld conditions were able to lower LDLcholesterol concentrations
>20%, which was not significantly different from their response to a firstgeneration
statin taken under metabolically controlled conditions. 8. Direct comparison of dietary portfolio vs statin on Creactive protein. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Josse AR, Wong JM, de Souza
R, Emam A, Parker TL, Li TJ, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Singer W, Connelly PW.
Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, St Michael's Hospital, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005 Jul;59(7):85160. BACKGROUND: 3Hydroxy3methylglutarylcoenzyme A (HMGCoA) reductase
inhibitors (statins) markedly reduce serum cholesterol and have antiinflammatory
effects. The effect of cholesterollowering diets on inflammatory biomarkers is less well
known. OBJECTIVE: To compare the efficacy of a dietary combination (portfolio) of
cholesterollowering foods vs a statin in reducing Creactive protein (CRP) as a
biomarker of inflammation linked to increased cardiovascular disease risk. METHODS: 34 In all, 34 hyperlipidemic subjects completed three 1month treatments as outpatients
in random order: a very lowsaturated fat diet (control); the same diet with 20 mg
lovastatin (statin); and a diet high in plant sterols (1.0 g/1000 kcal), soy protein (21.4
g/1000 kcal), viscous fibers (9.8 g/1000 kcal), and almonds (14 g/1000 kcal)
(portfolio). Fasting blood samples were obtained at weeks 0, 2, and 4. RESULTS: Using
the complete data, no treatment reduced serum CRP. However, when subjects with CRP
levels above the 75th percentile for previously reported studies (> 3.5 mg/l) were
excluded, CRP was reduced similarly on both statin, 16.3 +/ 6.7% (n = 23, P = 0.013)
and dietary portfolio, 23.8 +/ 6.9% (n = 25, P = 0.001) but not the control, 15.3 +/
13.6% (n = 28, P = 0.907). The percentage CRP change from baseline on the portfolio
treatment (n = 25) was greater than the control (n = 28, P = 0.004) but similar to statin
treatment (n = 23, P = 0.349). Both statin and portfolio treatments were similar in
reducing CRP and numerically more effective than control but only the change in
portfolio was significant after the Bonferroni adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: A
combination of cholesterollowering foods reduced Creactive protein to a similar
extent as the starting dose of a firstgeneration statin. 9. Direct comparison of a dietary portfolio of cholesterollowering foods with a statin in hypercholesterolemic participants. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Wong JM, de Souza R, Emam
A, Parker TL, Vidgen E, Trautwein EA, Lapsley KG, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Singer
W, Connelly PW. Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, St Michael's
Hospital, Toronto, Canada. cyril.kendall@utoronto.ca Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 Feb;81(2):3807. BACKGROUND: 3Hydroxy3methylglutarylcoenzyme A (HMGCoA) reductase
inhibitors reduce serum cholesterol and are increasingly advocated in primary prevention
to achieve reductions in LDL cholesterol. Newer dietary approaches combining
cholesterollowering foods may offer another option, but these approaches have not been
compared directly with statins in the same persons. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to
compare, in the same subjects, the cholesterollowering potential of a dietary portfolio
with that of a statin. DESIGN: Thirtyfour hyperlipidemic participants underwent all
three 1mo treatments in random order as outpatients: a verylowsaturatedfat diet
(control diet), the same diet plus 20 mg lovastatin (statin diet), and a diet high in
plant sterols ( 1.0 g/1000 kcal), soyprotein foods (including soy milks and soy
burgers, 21.4 g/1000 kcal), almonds (14 g/1000 kcal), and viscous fibers from oats,
barley, psyllium, and the vegetables okra and eggplant (10 g/1000 kcal) (portfolio
diets). Fasting blood samples were obtained at 0, 2, and 4 wk. RESULTS: LDL
cholesterol concentrations decreased by 8.5+/1.9%, 33.3+/1.9%, and 29.6+/1.3% after
4 wk of the control, statin, and portfolio diets, respectively. Although the absolute
difference between the statin and the portfolio treatments was significant at 4 wk (P=
0.013), 9 participants (26%) achieved their lowest LDLcholesterol concentrations with 35 the portfolio diet. Moreover, the statin (n=27) and the portfolio (n=24) diets did not differ
significantly (P=0.288) in their ability to reduce LDL cholesterol below the 3.4mmol/L
primary prevention cutoff. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary combinations may not differ in
potency from firstgeneration statins in achieving current lipid goals for primary
prevention. They may, therefore, bridge the treatment gap between current therapeutic
diets and newer statins. 10. Vegetarian diet and cholesterol and triglycerides levels. [Article in English, Portuguese] De Biase SG , Fernandes SF, Gianini RJ, Duarte JL. Catholic University at Sao
Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2007 Jan;88(1):359. OBJECTIVE: Compare levels of triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low density
lipoprotein (LDL) and high density lipoprotein (HDL) among vegetarians and
omnivores. METHODS: Blood samples were collected from 76 individualsboth males
and femalesseparated in four different diet groups: omnivores, lactoovo vegetarians,
lacto vegetarians, and restricted vegetarians (or vegans). Dosing was done for: TC, LDL,
HDL and TG. RESULTS: Significant difference was reported for TC, LDL and TG
levels among the samples. Higher levels were reported by omnivores, with decreased
levels for vegetarians as animal products were restricted, with lowest levels having been
reported by vegans. Mean and standard deviation for TC were 208.09 +/ 49.09 mg/dl in
the group of omnivores, and 141.06 +/ 30.56 mg/dl in the group of vegans (p < 0.001).
LDL values for omnivores and vegans were respectively: 123.43 +/ 42.67 mg/dl and
69.28 +/ 29.53 mg/dl (p < 0.001). As for TG, those values were 155.68 +/ 119.84 mg/dl
and 81.67 +/ 81.90 mg/dl (p < 0.01). As for HDL level no difference was reported
between the samples, but HDL/TC ratio was significantly higher in vegans (p = 0.01).
CONCLUSION: Vegetarian diet was associated to lower levels of TG, TC and LDL
as compared to the diet of omnivores 11. LDL of Taiwanese vegetarians are less oxidizable than those of
omnivores. Lu SC, Wu WH, Lee CA, Chou HF, Lee HR, Huang PC. Department of
Biochemistry, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. J Nutr. 2000 Jun;130(6):15916. The vegetarians in Taiwan consume diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. To
investigate whether this dietary pattern results in high susceptibility of LDL to
oxidation, 109 longterm (8 +/ 5 y) male and female vegans and lactovegetarians 36 (ages 3145 y) from Taipei and females from Hualien and matched omnivores were
recruited to have 24hrecall dietary assessments and blood lipid analysis. Body
mass index and blood pressure were significantly lower in all vegetarian groups than in
the matched omnivore groups (P < 0.05). Vegetarians consumed less energy except in the
males and less protein, fat and cholesterol (P < 0.05). The mean polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid (P/S) ratio of 2.4 in vegetarian diet was about two
times that in omnivore diet (P < 0. 001). The concentrations of plasma total and LDL
cholesterol (LDLC) but not HDLcholesterol (HDLC) were significantly lower (P <
0.001) and resulting HDLC/LDLC ratio was 38, 46 and 30% higher (P < 0.01) in Taipei
female, male and Hualien female vegetarians, respectively, than in the matched
omnivores. Plasma triglyceride concentration was significantly lower only in the Hualien
women vegetarians (31%, P < 0.001) than in the matched omnivores. The lag time of
conjugated diene formation in LDL oxidized in vitro induced by copper was longer in
Taipei female (62%, P < 0.001), male (29%, P < 0.05) and Hualien female (38%, P <
0.01), and the production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in LDL
after 24 h of oxidation was 2232% less (P < 0.005) in Taipei male and Hualien female
vegetarians than the matched omnivores. Lag time of LDL oxidation was negatively
related to LDL arachidonic (r = 0.55, P = 0.0003) and eicosapentaenoic (r = 0.47, P =
0.003) acid contents. LDLTBARS production was negatively related to LDL linoleic
acid content (r = 0.36, P = 0.023), but positively related to LDL arachidonic (r = 0.56, P
= 0.0002) and eicosapentaenoic (r = 0.45, P = 0.004) acids. No significant differences
were found in dietary vitamins C and E intakes and plasma LDL alphatocopherol
concentrations between vegetarians and omnivores . Our results suggest that
vegetarian diets decrease the susceptibility of LDL to oxidation despite their higher
dietary P/S ratio. 12. Lipid and antioxidant blood levels in vegetarians. KrajcovicovaKudlackova M, Simoncic R, Bederova A, Klvanova J, Brtkova A,
Grancicova E. Research Institute of Nutrition, Bratislava Slovak Republic. Nahrung. 1996 Feb;40(1):1720. Parameters of lipid metabolism (triacylglycerols TG, cholesterol CH, HDLCH, LDL
CH, atherogenic index AI, profile of fatty acids) were measured in blood samples of 81
healthy lacto and lactoovo vegetarians (42 males, 39 females; age range 1939 years).
The average period of being on a vegetarian diet was 6.2 years. Low levels of TG, CH,
LDLCH, AI and HDLCH values on the borderline between standard and reduced
risk (1.4 mmol.l1) can be considered as favourable from the atherosclerosis
prevention aspect. Compared with nonvegetarians (n = 62), the levels of TG, CH,
LDLCH, and AI are significantly reduced in the vegetarian group. As opposed to
nonvegetarians, vegetarians showed a higher total sum of polyunsaturated fatty
acids, a significantly higher content of linoleic acid (C 18:2) and linolenic acid (C
18:3), unchanged content of oleic acid (C 18:1), stearic acid (C 18:0) and other 37 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The process of lipoperoxidation (with polyunsaturated
fatty acids as substrate) is involved in the etiology of cardiovascular and oncological
diseases. Favourable values of prooxidativeantioxidative parameters demonstrated
a reduced risk of lipoperoxidation in vegetarians, compared to nonvegetarians
(significantly reduced content of conjugated dienes of fatty acids in plasma, significantly
higher plasma levels of vitamin C, betacarotene, vitamin E/cholesterol ratioand
indicator of LDL protection, vitamin E/triacylglycerols ratioan indicator of fatty acid
protection, selenium and glutathioneperoxidase activity). 13. Plasma fatty acid profile and prooxidativeantioxidative parameters in
vegetarians. KrajcovicovaKudlackova M , Simoncic R, Bederova A, Klvanova J, Babinska K,
Grancicova E. Research Institute of Nutrition, Bratislava, Slovak Republic. Nahrung. 1995;39(56):4527. Fatty acid profile in plasma was examined in 12 adult vegetarians (lacto and lacto
ovo) aged 4163 years with an average period of vegetarian nutrition of 9.8 years.
Difference in the content of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in vegetarians was
insignificant (compared to nonvegetarians). Positive factor of vegetarian nutritional habit
with respect to atherosclerosis included significantly elevated content of linoleic acid (C
18:2) and linolenic acid (C 18:3), as well as unchanged or only slightly reduced content
of polyunsaturated fatty acidsarachidonic acid (C 20:4) and docosahexaenoic acid (C
22:6, n = 3). Favourable values of prooxidativeantioxidative parameters
(significantly reduced content of conjugated dienes of fatty acids in pla
Vegetarian Diet ...................................................................... 3 I. Health & Nutrition ........................................................ 3 II. Excretory System ......................................................... 22 III. Circulatory System................................................... 28 IV. Digestion System ........................................................ 47 V. Reproduction System / Endocrine System .............. 48
VI. Children & Infants ................................................... 50
VII. Athletes ................................................................... 54
VIII. Bone ....................................................................... 56
X. Meat ........................................................................... 60
XI. Grains / Whole Grains ............................................. 67 3 Vegetarian Diet I. Health & Nutrition 1. [Vegetarian diets; effect on health] [Article in Spanish] de Luis Roman D, Aller R, Castano O. Seccion de Endocrinologia y Nutricion Clinica,
Unidad de Apoyo a la nvestigacion, Hospital Universitario del Rio Hortega, Valladolid,
Espana. dadluis@yahoo.es Rev Clin Esp. 2007 Mar;207(3):1413. Vegetarian diets are those diets mainly based on the consumption of vegetable product,
but that also permit consumption of eggs and milk. The American Dietetic Association
made a declaration on these vegetarian diets in which they stated that <<a wellplanned
vegetarian diet is healthy, nutritionally adequate and provides health benefits in the
prevention and treatment of certain diseases>>. Some studies have shown beneficial
results in obesity, cancer, Parkinson disease, hypertension, type 2 diabetes mellitus and
urinary stones, compared with the omnivorous. The possible theoretical benefits in some
diseases has been seen in the medical practice (diabetes mellitus, obesity, cardiovascular
risk). However more studies are needed in the case of Parkinson's disease and rheumatoid
arthritis. 2. Vegetarian diets: what are the advantages? Leitzmann C. Institute of Nutritional Sciences, University of Giessen, Giessen,
Germany. claus.leitzmann@ernaehrung.unigiessen.de Forum Nutr. 2005;(57):14756. A growing body of scientific evidence indicates that wholesome vegetarian diets offer
distinct advantages compared to diets containing meat and other foods of animal origin.
The benefits arise from lower intakes of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein as
well as higher intakes of complex carbohydrates, dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid,
vitamin C and E, carotenoids and other phytochemicals . Since vegetarians consume
widely divergent diets, a differentiation between various types of vegetarian diets is
necessary. Indeed, many contradictions and misunderstandings concerning vegetarianism
are due to scientific data from studies without this differentiation . In the past, vegetarian
diets have been described as being deficient in several nutrients including protein, iron, 4 zinc, calcium, vitamin B12 and A, n3 fatty acids and iodine. Numerous studies have
demonstrated that the observed deficiencies are usually due to poor meal planning. Well
balanced vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including hildren,
adolescents, pregnant and lactating women, the elderly and competitive athletes. In most
cases, vegetarian diets are beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases,
such as cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosis, renal disease
and dementia, as well as diverticular disease, gallstones and rheumatoid arthritis . The
reasons for choosing a vegetarian diet often go beyond health and wellbeing and include
among others economical, ecological and social concerns. The influences of these aspects
of vegetarian diets are the subject of the new field of nutritional ecology that is concerned
with sustainable life styles and human development. 3. Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada:
Vegetarian diets. American Dietetic Association; Dietitians of Canada. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003 Jun;103(6):74865. It is the position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada that
appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide
health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases . Approximately 2.5%
of adults in the United States and 4% of adults in Canada follow vegetarian diets. A
vegetarian diet is defined as one that does not include meat, fish, or fowl. Interest in
vegetarianism appears to be increasing, with many restaurants and college foodservices
offering vegetarian meals routinely. Substantial growth in sales of foods attractive to
vegetarians has occurred, and these foods appear in many supermarkets. This position
paper reviews the current scientific data related to key nutrients for vegetarians, including
protein, iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin D, riboflavin, vitamin B12, vitamin A, n3 fatty
acids, and iodine. A vegetarian, including vegan, diet can meet current recommendations
for all of these nutrients. In some cases, use of fortified foods or supplements can be
helpful in meeting recommendations for individual nutrients. Wellplanned vegan and
other types of vegetarian diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including
during pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence. Vegetarian diets offer a
number of nutritional benefits, including lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and
animal protein as well as higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium,
folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals. Vegetarians have
been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower
rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol
levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and
prostate and colon cancer. Although a number of federally funded and institutional
feeding programs can accommodate vegetarians, few have foods suitable for vegans at
this time. Because of the variability of dietary practices among vegetarians, individual
assessment of dietary intakes of vegetarians is required. Dietetics professionals have a 5 responsibility to support and encourage those who express an interest in consuming a
vegetarian diet. They can play key roles in educating vegetarian clients about food
sources of specific nutrients, food purchase and preparation, and any dietary
modifications that may be necessary to meet individual needs. Menu planning for
vegetarians can be simplified by use of a food guide that specifies food groups and
serving sizes. 4. Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets. Key TJ, Appleby PN, Rosell MS. Cancer Research UK Epidemiology Unit, University
of Oxford, Richard Doll Building. tim.key@ceu.ox.ac.uk Proc Nutr Soc. 2006 Feb;65(1):3541. Vegetarian diets do not contain meat, poultry or fish; vegan diets further exclude dairy
products and eggs. Vegetarian and vegan diets can vary widely, but the empirical
evidence largely relates to the nutritional content and health effects of the average diet of
welleducated vegetarians living in Western countries, together with some information on
vegetarians in nonWestern countries. In general, vegetarian diets provide relatively large
amounts of cereals, pulses, nuts, fruits and vegetables. In terms of nutrients, vegetarian
diets are usually rich in carbohydrates, n6 fatty acids, dietary fibre, carotenoids, folic
acid, vitamin C, vitamin E and Mg, and relatively low in protein, saturated fat, longchain
n3 fatty acids, retinol, vitamin B(12) and Zn; vegans may have particularly low intakes
of vitamin B(12) and low intakes of Ca. Crosssectional studies of vegetarians and vegans
have shown that on average they have a relatively low BMI and a low plasma cholesterol
concentration; recent studies have also shown higher plasma homocysteine
concentrations than in nonvegetarians. Cohort studies of vegetarians have shown a
moderate reduction in mortality from IHD but little difference in other major causes of
death or allcause mortality in comparison with healthconscious nonvegetarians from
the same population . Studies of cancer have not shown clear differences in cancer rates
between vegetarians and nonvegetarians. More data are needed, particularly on the
health of vegans and on the possible impacts on health of low intakes of longchain n3
fatty acids and vitamin B(12). Overall, the data suggest that the health of Western
vegetarians is good and similar to that of comparable nonvegetarians. 5. Nutrient intakes and eating behavior scores of vegetarian and
nonvegetarian women. Janelle KC , Barr SI . School of Family and Nutritional Sciences, University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, Canada. J Am Diet Assoc. 1995 Feb;95(2):1806, 189, quiz 1878. 6 OBJECTIVE: To compare nutrient intakes between vegetarians and no vegetarians with
similar health practices, and to assess relationships with eating behavior scores from the
ThreeFactor Eating Questionnaire. DESIGN: Survey. SETTING: Metropolitan area in
western Canada. SUBJECTS: Subjects (n = 45) were participants in a study comparing
sub clinical menstrual disturbances between vegetarians and no vegetarians. To be
included, women had to be 20 to 40 years old, be weight stable with a body mass index
(BMI; kg/m2) of 18 to 25, be a nonsmoker, exercise 7 hours a week or less, consume one
alcoholic drink or less a day, and not be using oral contraceptives. No vegetarians (n =
22) ate red meat three times a week or more, and vegetarians (n = 23, 8 vegans and 15
lactovegetarians) had excluded all meat, fish, and poultry for 2 years or more. MAIN
OUTCOME MEASURES: Nutrient intake assessed by three 3day diet records;
supplement use; body composition; and dietary restraint (conscious limitation of food
intake), disinhibition, and hunger assessed by the ThreeFactor Eating Questionnaire.
STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: Anthropometrical variables, nutrient
intakes, and eating behavior scores were compared between vegetarians and
nonvegetarians using unpaired t tests, and among vegans, lactovegetarians, and
nonvegetarians using oneway analysis of variance and Duncan's test. Supplement use
was compared using chi 2 analysis. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to
evaluate relationships between variables. RESULTS: Diets of all women adhered closely
to current nutrition recommendations. Vegetarians had lower protein and cholesterol
intakes and higher percentage of energy as carbohydrate, ratio of polyunsaturated fat to
saturated fat (P:S ratio), and fiber intake than nonvegetarians. Vegetarians had lower
riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B12, zinc, and sodium intakes and higher folate, vitamin C,
and copper intakes. However, many differences were not apparent between the subgroup
of lactovegetarians and nonvegetarians (their P:S ratios and carbohydrate, fiber,
riboflavin, folate, vitamin C, and copper intakes were similar). In contrast, differences
existed between the lactovegetarian and the vegan subgroups. Supplement use was
similar between groups, except for greater vitamin C use by vegetarians. Vegetarians
were leaner than nonvegetarians, had lower restraint scores, and had significant
associations between restraint and BMI (r = .49; P < .05) and energy per kilogram body
weight (r = .60; P < .01). APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: Current nutrition
recommendations can be attained by vegetarians and nonvegetarians alike, but nutrient
intakes cannot be inferred from dietary pattern. In this study, the intakes of health
conscious nonvegetarians and lactovegetarians were more similar than the intakes of
lactovegetarians and vegans. Vegans' calcium and vitamin B12 intakes may need
attention. Vegetarians' lower restraint scores suggest that they are not at increased risk for
eating disorders. 6. Relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among health
conscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian women ages 18 to
50. Barr SI , Broughton TM. Food, Nutrition and Health, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada. sibarr@interchange.ubc.ca 7 J Am Coll Nutr. 2000 NovDec;19(6):7818. OBJECTIVE: To compare relative weight, weight loss efforts and nutrient intakes among
similarly healthconscious vegetarian, past vegetarian and nonvegetarian premenopausal
women. METHODS: Demographic data, lifestyle practices and weight loss efforts (by
questionnaire), body mass index (BMI;kg/m2) and dietary intake (via multiplepass 24
hour diet recall) were compared in a convenience sample of 90 current vegetarians, 35
past vegetarians and 68 nonvegetarians. RESULTS: Age ( 31.9 +/ 8.8), educational
attainment, smoking status, alcohol use, physical activity and perceived health status
were similar among the three groups of women. BMI did not differ by dietary pattern and
averaged 23.7 +/ 4.7 for all women combined. Participants had intentionally lost > or =
10 pounds a mean of 2.1 times, and 39% of women perceived themselves to be
overweight; again, no differences were observed among dietary groups. Dietary intakes
of vegetarians and current nonvegetarians were consistent with current recommendations
for macronutrient composition (< 30% fat, < 10% saturates). Compared to current
nonvegetarians, current vegetarians had lower intakes of protein, saturated fat,
cholesterol, niacin, vitamins B12 and D, and higher fiber and magnesium intakes.
Vegetarians' mean vitamin B12 and D intakes were well below recommendations.
CONCLUSIONS: Relative weight and weight loss efforts do not differ by dietary pattern
among similarly healthconscious vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. The only
differences in nutrient intake with potential health implications were vitamins D and B12. 7. Nutritional intakes of vegetarian populations in France. Leblanc JC, Yoon H, Kombadjian A, Verger P. Institut National Agronomique Paris
Grignon, Laboratoire de Biologie et Nutrition Humaine, 16 rue Claude Bernard 75005
Paris, France. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2000 May;54(5):4439. OBJECTIVE: To assess food behaviour and determine nutritional intakes of various
vegetarian populations in France. DESIGN: A fiveday selfadministered food record
which was mailed to members of the three principal French vegetarian organisations.
SUBJECTS: 145 subjects, aged 787 y; 94 classical vegetarians (19% of those contacted),
34 Hindu lactovegetarians (17% of those contacted) and 17 macrobiotic (34% of those
contacted). SETTING: The survey was conducted between March 1997 and July 1997 in
France. RESULTS: Vegetarianism in France is represented by three main classes of food
behaviour: ovolactovegetarian (AAV), lactovegetarian (KRI) and macrobiotic (MMK).
The geometric mean intakes ranged from 1952 kcal/d (KRI), 2051 kcal/d (MMK) to 2384
kcal/d (AAV) for males and from 1302 kcal/d (MMK), 1675 kcal/d (AAV) to 1804
kcal/d (KRI) for females, after adjusting for age and BMI. The energy consumption in the
MMK group was significantly lower than that in the AAV (P< 0.05) and KRI groups
(P<0.01), respectively. A difference among groups was observed for females (P=0.0002),
but not for males. The MMK group consumed less lipid than the other two vegetarian 8 groups, 46 g/d for men and 38 g/d for women vs 80 g/d for men and 61 g/d for women in
the AAV group and 93 g/d for men and 81 g/d for women in the KRI group, respectively.
Differences with AAV and MMK were statistically significant (P< 0.001 for men and
women for both groups). Mean protein consumption ranged from 60 g/d (AAV), 64 g/d
(KRI) to 77 g/d (MMK) for males and from 46 g/d (MMK), 50 g/d (AAV) to 58 g/d
(KRI) for females. Mean carbohydrate intakes ranged from 247 g/d (AAV), 321 g/d
(KRI) to 338 g/d (MMK) in males and from 209 g/d (MMK), 228 g/d (AAV) to 242 g/d
(KRI) in females. There were no significant differences in protein and carbohydrate
intakes between the groups. Median calcium intakes ranged from 758.2 mg/d (MMK),
863 mg/d (AAV) to 989.3 mg/d (KRI) for the men and from 500.8 mg/d (MMK), 863
mg/d (AAV) to 934 mg/d (KRI) for the women. In the men, there was no differences in
daily calcium intakes between the three vegetarian groups. However, we found a
significant difference for women (P=0. 0041). The women in the MMK group presented
significantly lower daily calcium intakes than the women in the AAV (P= 0.013) and
KRI (P=0.0032) groups. The AAV and KRI groups consumed dairy products supplying
respectively 36% and 53% for the men and 39% and 59% for the women of total calcium
against 0% for men and women in the MMK group. Median iron intakes ranged between
12.5 mg/d (KRI), 13.2 mg/d (AAV) and 22.5 mg/d (MMK) for the men and between 11.2
mg/d (KRI), 14.6 mg/d (AAV) and 16.9 mg/d (MMK) for the women. MMK (men
P=0.0172 and women P=0.0131) and AAV (only in men P=0.037) groups consumed
significantly higher quantities of iron than did the KRI group. The heme iron median
intake in males and females of the three vegetarian groups was very low (< 0.5%).
Overall, the female vegetarians consumed 58.1 (MMK), 109 (AAV) and 127.4 (KRI) mg
of vitamin C per day and the males 76.3 (MMK), 150.4 (AAV) and 150.4 (KRI) mg per
day. Median vitamin B9 intakes ranged from 247.5 microg/d (KRI), 312 microg/d
(MMK) to 390.4 microg/d (AAV) for the men and from 188.3 microg/d (MMK), 266.9
microg/d (KRI) to 323.8 microg/d (AAV) for the women. Vitamin B12 consumption
ranged from 0.2 microg/d (MMK), 1.5 microg/d (AAV) to 1.7 microg/d (KRI) in the
women and from 0.6 microg/d (MMK) to 1.0 microg/d (AAV and KRI) in the men. No
differences in consumption were observed in the males. On the other hand, the women in
the MMK group consumed significantly less vitamin C and B12 than did the women in
the AAV (P= 0.0006) and KRI (P=0. 0396) groups, while it was at the limit of
significance for the females (P=0.0715) for vitamin B9. CONCLUSION: Our results
suggest that vegetarians have a better understanding of dietary requirements than
does the general population. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED) 8. EPICOxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort
of 33 883 meateaters and 31 546 non meateaters in the UK. Davey GK , Spencer EA, Appleby PN, Allen NE, Knox KH, Key TJ. Cancer
Research UK Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford, Gibson Building, Radcliffe
Infirmary, Oxford OX2 6HE, UK. davey@iarc.fr Public Health Nutr. 2003 May;6(3):25969. 9 OBJECTIVE: To describe the lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes of the
Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition
(EPIC). DESIGN: Cohort of men and women recruited through general practices or by
post to include a high proportion of non meateaters. Dietary, anthropometric and
lifestyle data were collected at baseline and four diet groups were defined. SETTING:
United Kingdom. PARTICIPANTS: In total, 65 429 men and women aged 20 to 97
years, comprising 33 883 meateaters, 10 110 fisheaters, 18 840 lactoovo vegetarians
and 2596 vegans. RESULTS: Nutrient intakes and lifestyle factors differed across the
diet groups, with striking differences between meateaters and vegans, and fisheaters and
vegetarians usually having intermediate values. Mean fat intake in each diet group was
below the UK dietary reference value of 33% of total energy intake. The mean
intake of saturated fatty acids in vegans was approximately 5% of energy, less than
half the mean intake among meateaters (1011%). Vegans had the highest intakes of
fibre, vitamin B1, folate, vitamin C, vitamin E, magnesium and iron, and the lowest
intakes of retinol, vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium and zinc. CONCLUSIONS: The
EPICOxford cohort includes 31 546 non meateaters and is one of the largest
studies of vegetarians in the world. The average nutrient intakes in the whole cohort
are close to those currently recommended for good health. Comparisons of the diet
groups show wide ranges in the intakes of major nutrients such as saturated fat and
dietary fibre. Such variation should increase the ability of the study to detect
associations of diet with major cancers and causes of death. 9. The UK Women's Cohort Study: comparison of vegetarians, fisheaters
and meateaters. Cade JE , Burley VJ , Greenwood DC; UK Women's Cohort Study Steering Group.
Nutritional Epidemiology Group, University of Leeds, UK. j.e.cade@leeds.ac.uk Public Health Nutr. 2004 Oct;7(7):8718. BACKGROUND: This paper describes the development of the UK Women's Cohort
Study and presents cohort baseline characteristics. METHODS: In total, 35,372 women,
aged 3569 years at recruitment, were selected to ensure a wide range of dietary intakes.
Diet was assessed by a 217item foodfrequency questionnaire (FFQ). Detailed lifestyle
information was collected by postal questionnaire. Vegetarians, fisheaters and meat
eaters were compared. RESULTS: The cohort women are mainly white, well
educated, middleclass and married with children. They are healthconscious with
only 11% current smokers and 58% taking dietary supplements. Twentyeight per cent of
subjects selfreport as being vegetarian and 1% as vegan. However, only 18% are defined
as 'vegetarian' from the FFQ. Fat provides 32% of energy; vitamin and mineral intakes
are high, with a broad range of intakes . Meateaters are older, with a higher body
mass index (BMI) and the lowest intakes of carbohydrate, fibre, vitamin C, folate,
iron and calcium. Other fisheaters are similar to vegetarians. Vegetarians have the 10 lowest intakes of protein, fat and saturated fat. Oily fisheaters have the lowest
BMI; are the least likely to smoke or use fullfat milk; and are the most likely to use
dietary supplements and consume the most fruit and vegetables. Oily fisheaters
have the highest total energy intake and vegetarians the lowest . Semiskimmed milk,
bread, potatoes, wine, bananas and muesli are important contributors to energy for all
groups. CONCLUSION: A large cohort of middleaged women has been created
encompassing a wide range of different eating patterns, including diets currently of
interest to research into protection against cancer and coronary heart disease. Participants
will be followed up to study the effects of different food and nutrient intakes on long
term health outcomes. 10. Diet and body mass index in 38000 EPICOxford meateaters, fish
eaters, vegetarians and vegans. Spencer EA , Appleby PN, Davey GK, Key TJ. Cancer Research UK Epidemiology
Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK. elizabeth.spencer@cancer.org.uk Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2003 Jun;27(6):72834. OBJECTIVE: To compare body mass index (BMI) in four diet groups (meateaters, fish
eaters, vegetarians and vegans) in the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective
Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPICOxford) and to investigate lifestyle and
dietary factors associated with any observed differences. DESIGN: Crosssectional
analysis of selfreported dietary, anthropometric and lifestyle data. PARTICIPANTS: A
total of 37875 healthy men and women aged 2097 y participating in EPICOxford.
RESULTS: Ageadjusted mean BMI was significantly different between the four diet
groups, being highest in the meateaters ( 24.41 kg/m(2) in men, 23.52 kg/m(2) in
women) and lowest in the vegans (22.49 kg/m(2) in men, 21.98 kg/m(2) in women). Fish
eaters and vegetarians had similar, intermediate mean BMI. Differences in lifestyle
factors including smoking, physical activity and education level accounted for less than
5% of the difference in mean ageadjusted BMI between meateaters and vegans,
whereas differences in macronutrient intake accounted for about half of the difference.
High protein (as percent energy) and low fibre intakes were the dietary factors most
strongly and consistently associated with increasing BMI both between and within the
diet groups. CONCLUSIONS: Fisheaters, vegetarians and especially vegans had
lower BMI than meateaters. Differences in macronutrient intakes accounted for
about half the difference in mean BMI between vegans and meateaters. High
protein and low fibre intakes were the factors most strongly associated with
increasing BMI. 11. Low body mass index in nonmeat eaters: the possible roles of animal
fat, dietary fibre and alcohol. 11 Appleby PN , Thorogood M, Mann JI, Key TJ. Imperial Cancer Research Fund
Cancer Epidemiology Unit, Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford, UK. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1998 May;22(5):45460. OBJECTIVE: To examine the associations of diet and other lifestyle factors with
body mass index (BMI) using data from the Oxford Vegetarian Study . SUBJECTS:
1914 male and 3378 female nonsmokers aged 2089 y at recruitment to the study.
MEASUREMENTS: All subjects completed a diet/lifestyle questionnaire at recruitment
giving details of their usual diet and other characteristics including height and weight,
smoking and drinking habits, amount of exercise, occupation and reproductive history.
Answers to the food frequency questionnaire were used to classify subjects as either meat
eaters or nonmeat eaters, and to estimate intakes of animal fat and dietary fibre. Subjects
were further classified according to their alcohol consumption, exercise level, social
class, past smoking habits and parity. RESULTS: Mean BMI was lower in nonmeat
eaters than in meat eaters in all age groups for both men and women. Overall age
adjusted mean BMIs in kg/m2 were 23.18 and 22.05 for male meat eaters and nonmeat
eaters respectively (P < 0.0001) and 22.32 and 21.32 for female meat eaters and nonmeat
eaters respectively (P < 0.0001). In addition to meat consumption, dietary fibre intake,
animal fat intake, social class and past smoking were all independently associated with
BMI in both men and women; alcohol consumption was independently associated with
BMI in men, and parity was independently associated with BMI in women. After
adjusting for these factors, the differences in mean BMI between meat eaters and non
meat eaters were reduced by 36% in men and 31% in women. CONCLUSIONS: Non
meat eaters are thinner than meat eaters. This may be partly due to a higher intake
of dietary fibre, a lower intake of animal fat, and only in men a lower intake of
alcohol. 12. Diet and serum lipids in vegan vegetarians: a model for risk reduction. Resnicow K, Barone J, Engle A, Miller S, Haley NJ, Fleming D, Wynder E.
American Health Foundation, New York, NY 10017. J Am Diet Assoc. 1991 Apr;91(4):44753. The lipid levels and dietary habits of 31 SeventhDay Adventist vegan vegetarians
(aged 5 to 46 years) who consume no animal products were assessed. Mean serum
total cholesterol ( 3.4 mmol/L), lowdensitylipoprotein cholesterol (1.8 mmol/L),
and triglyceride (0.8 mmol/L) levels were lower than expected values derived from
the Lipid Research Clinics Population Studies prevalence data. Mean highdensity
lipoprotein cholesterol ( 1.3 mmol/L) was comparable to expected values. Analysis of
quantitative food frequency data showed that vegans had a significantly lower daily
intake of total energy, percentage of energy from fat (31% vs 38%), total fat,
saturated fat, monounsaturated fatty acids, cholesterol, and protein and a 12 significantly higher intake of fiber than a sample of matched omnivore controls .
Vegans' food intake was also compared with expected values, matched for sex and age,
derived from the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey and
Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals 24hour recall data. The vegan diet
was characterized by increased consumption of almonds, cashews, and their nut butters;
dried fruits; citrus fruits; soy milk; and greens. We conclude from the present study
that a strict vegan diet, which is typically very low in saturated fat and dietary
cholesterol and high in fiber, can help children and adults maintain or achieve
desirable blood lipid levels. 13. The effect of a lowfat, highcarbohydrate diet on serum high density
lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride. Turley ML , Skeaff CM, Mann JI, Cox B. Department of Human Nutrition,
University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand. Eur J Clin Nutr. 1998 Oct;52(10):72832. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether substituting carbohydrate for saturated fat has
any adverse effects on serum high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and
triglycerides in freeliving individuals . DESIGN: Randomised crossover trial.
SETTING: General community. SUBJECTS: Volunteer sample of 38 healthy freeliving
men with mean (s.d.) age 37 (7) y, moderately elevated serum total cholesterol 5.51
(0.93) mmol/l and body mass index 26.0 (3.6) kg/m2. INTERVENTIONS: Participants
completed two six week experimental periods during which they consumed either a
traditional Western diet (36%, 18%, and 43% energy from total, saturated, and
carbohydrate, respectively) or a lowsaturated fat highcarbohydrate diet (22%, 6% and
59% energy from total, saturated, and carbohydrate, respectively). Dietary principles
were reinforced regularly, but food choices were selfselected during each experimental
period. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Serum lipids, body weight and plasma fatty
acids. RESULTS: Reported energy and nutrient intakes, plasma fatty acids, and a drop in
weight from 79.1 (12.5) kg on the Western diet to 77.6 (12.0) kg on the high
carbohydrate diet (P < 0.001) confirmed a high level of compliance with experimental
diets. Total and low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol fell from 5.52 (1.04) mmol/l
and 3.64 (0.88) mmol/l, respectively on the Western diet to 4.76 (1.10) mmol/l and 2.97
(0.94) mmol/l on the highcarbohydrate diet (P < 0.001). HDL cholesterol fell from 1.21
(0.27) mmol/l on the Western diet to 1.07 (0.23) mmol/l on the highcarbohydrate diet (P
= 0.057), but the LDL:HDL cholesterol ratio improved from 3.17 (1.05) on the Western
diet to 2.88 (0.97) on the highcarbohydrate diet (P = 0.004). Fasting triglyceride levels
were unchanged throughout the study. CONCLUSIONS: Replacement of saturated fat
with carbohydrate from grains, vegetables, legumes, and fruit reduces total and
LDL cholesterol with only a minor effect on HDL cholesterol and triglyceride. It
seems that when free living individuals change to a fibre rich highcarbohydrate diet
appropriate food choices lead to a modest weight reduction. This may explain why 13 the marked elevation of triglyceride and reduction of HDL cholesterol observed on
strictly controlled highcarbohydrate diets may not occur when such diets are followed in
practice. 14. Nutritional intakes in communitydwelling older Japanese adults: high
intakes of energy and protein based on high consumption of fish,
vegetables and fruits provide sufficient micronutrients. Watanabe R , Hanamori K, Kadoya H, Nishimuta M, Miyazaki H. Course of Food
and Nutrition, Department of Human Life Environments, Niigata Women's College,
Niigata 9508680, Japan. reiwata@fnh.nicol.ac.jp J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2004 Jun;50(3):18495. The purpose of this study was to obtain detailed data on the dietary intake of
energy, macronutrients, and micronutrients, especially minerals and vitamins, of
healthy freeliving people over the age of 70 in Japan and to clarify the correlations
among nutrient intakes . The survey was conducted in November 2001 for 57 persons
(men: 31, women: 26) aged 74 y (born in 1927) living in Niigata City, Japan. A precise
weighing method was used to record food intake for three consecutive days. Nutrient
intake was calculated based on the Standard Tables of Food Composition in Japan (5th
ed.). The intakes of energy and total protein were 44.8+/7.7 kcal/kg/d and 1.80+/0.35
g/kg/d for men and 38.1+/7.6 kcal/ kg/d and 1.51+/0.26 g/kg/d for women. These
values are significantly higher than those proposed by the current Recommended Dietary
Allowances (RDAs) and the data by the 2001 National Nutrition Survey in Japan. The
energy intake ratios from protein, carbohydrate and fat for men were 16 : 58 : 22,
respectively, and the residual part was alcohol. For women, the ratios were 16 : 62 : 22.
The proportion of total protein intake that consisted of animal protein was 57.8% for men
and 52.8% for women. For both sexes, all of the mean daily intakes of nine minerals and
12 vitamins were higher than those prescribed for elderly Japanese people (> or =70 y) in
the RDAs. Significant strong correlations were found between total protein intake and
intakes of vitamins D, B2 and B6, as well as niacin and pantothenic acid (p< 0.0001).
Among the nine minerals, the correlations were very strong between potassium and
magnesium, calcium and phosphorus, magnesium and iron, magnesium and copper, iron
and copper, and zinc and copper (r's>0.700 ). For vitamins, strong correlations were
found between vitamin A and folic acid, vitamin B2 and pantothenic acid, and folic acid
and pantothenic acid. Furthermore, strong relationships were observed between
potassium and folic acid, potassium and pantothenic acid, potassium and dietary fiber,
phosphorus and vitamin B2, phosphorus and pantothenic acid, iron and folic acid, zinc
and vitamin B12, and copper and vitamin B12 . From these results, it is evident that
age is not an important determinant of dietary intake among apparently healthy
elderly Japanese people aged 74 y. In addition, the high intake of energy and protein
in the Japanese dietary pattern, based upon high consumption of fish and/or
shellfish, vegetables, and fruits, provide sufficient minerals and vitamins. 14 15. Validity of reported energy expenditure and energy and protein
intakes in Swedish adolescent vegans and omnivores. Larsson CL , Westerterp KR, Johansson GK. Department of Food and Nutrition,
Umea University, Umea, Sweden. christel.larsson@kost.umu.se Am J Clin Nutr. 2002 Feb;75(2):26874. BACKGROUND: It is difficult to obtain accurate reports of dietary intake; therefore,
reported dietary intakes must be validated. Researchers need lowcost methods of
estimating energy expenditure to validate reports of energy intake in groups with
different lifestyles and eating habits. OBJECTIVE: We sought to validate the reported
energy expenditure and energy and protein intakes of Swedish adolescent vegans and
omnivores. DESIGN: We compared 16 vegans (7 females and 9 males; mean age: 17.4
+/ 0.8 y) with 16 omnivores matched for sex, age, and height. Energy expenditure as
reported in a physical activity interview and energy and protein intakes as reported by
diet history were validated by using the doubly labeled water method and by measuring
urinary nitrogen excretion. RESULTS: The validity of reported energy expenditure
and energy and protein intakes was not significantly different between vegans and
omnivores. The physical activity interview had a bias toward underestimating energy
expenditure by 1.4 +/ 2.6 MJ/d (95% CI: 2.4, 0.5 MJ/d). The diethistory interview had a
bias toward underestimating energy intake by 1.9 +/ 2.7 MJ/d (95% CI: 2.9, 1.0 MJ/d)
but showed good agreement with the validation method for nitrogen (protein) intake
(underestimate of 0.40 +/ 1.90 g N/d; 95% CI: 1.10, 0.29 g N/d). CONCLUSIONS: The
physical activity and diethistory interviews underestimated energy expenditure and
energy intake, respectively. Energy intake and expenditure were underestimated to the
same extent, and the degree of underestimation was not significantly different between
vegans and omnivores. Valid protein intakes were obtained with the diethistory
method for both vegans and omnivores. 16. The contribution of vegetarian diets to human health. Sabate J. Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Loma Linda University,
CA 92350, USA. jsabate@sph.llu.edu Forum Nutr. 2003;56:21820. Our knowledge is far from complete regarding the relationship between vegetarian diets
and human health. However, scientific advances in the last decades have considerably
changed the role that vegetarian diets may play in human nutrition. Components of a
healthy vegetarian diet include a variety of vegetables, fruits, whole grain cereals,
legumes and nuts . Numerous studies show important and quantifiable benefits of the
different components of vegetarian diets, namely the reduction of risk for many
chronic diseases and the increase in longevity. Such evidence is derived from the study 15 of vegetarians as well as other populations. While meat intake has been related to
increased risk for a variety of chronic diseases, an abundant consumption of
vegetables, fruits, cereals, nuts, and legumes all have been independently related
with a lower risk for several chronic degenerative diseases, such as ischemic heart
disease, diabetes, obesity, and many cancers. Hence, whole foods of plant origin
seem to be beneficial on their own merit for chronic disease prevention. This is
possibly more certain than the detrimental effects of meats. Vegetarian diets, as any other
diet pattern, have potential health risks, namely marginal intake of essential nutrients.
However, from the public health viewpoint the health benefits of a wellplanned
vegetarian diet far outweigh the potential risks. 17. Adequacy of a vegetarian diet at old age (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance
System). Brants HA, Lowik MR, Westenbrink S, Hulshof KF, Kistemaker C. TNOCIVO
Toxicology and Nutrition Institute, Department of Human Nutrition, Zeist, The
Netherlands. J Am Coll Nutr. 1990 Aug;9(4):292302. To assess the adequacy of a vegetarian diet at old age, the dietary intake (assessed
through dietary history with crosscheck) of 44 apparently healthy lacto(ovo
)vegetarians, aged 6597 years, was evaluated. Adequacy was assessed by a
comparison of nutrient intake with (Dutch) recommendations and by evaluating data on
nutritional status. The results were also compared with data of elderly omnivores. In
contrast to elderly omnivores, percentages of energy from protein (13%), fat (37%), and
carbohydrates (50%) as well as P/S ratio ( 0.63) were close to or within the range of
Dutch guidelines regarding a healthy diet (percentages of energy from protein, fat, and
carbohydrates 1015, 3035, and 55%, respectively: P/S ratio 0.51.0). For most of the
micronutrients studied intake was adequate, and nutrient density of the vegetarian diet
was higher than of the omnivorous diet. However, the supply of zinc (average daily
intake 8.5 and 7.6 mg for men and women, respectively), iron (because of lower
bioavailability of nonheme iron), vitamin B12 (women only: intake 2.3 micrograms/day),
and water (daily intake less than 1600 ml for 30% of the vegetarians) need special
attention, considering the relatively high prevalence of a marginal status of these
nutrients. In conclusion, a lacto(ovo)vegetarian diet can be adequate at old age,
provided that it is carefully planned, especially with respect to the supply of iron,
zinc, and vitamin B12. 18. [Vegetarian nutrition: Preventive potential and possible risks. Part 1:
Plant foods] [Article in German] 16 Strohle A , Waldmann A, Wolters M, Hahn A. Abteilung Ernahrungsphysiologie und
Humanernahrung, Institut fur Lebensmittelwissenschaft, Leibniz Universitat Hannover,
Hannover, Germany. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2006 Oct;118(1920):58093. Today vegetarian nutrition is more accepted and widespread in Europe than in former
years. For a long time scientific research on vegetarian diets has focused mostly on
malnutrition, whereas nowadays research centers increasingly on the preventive potential
of plantbased diets. We followed a nutritive and a metabolicepidemiological
approach to obtain dietary recommendations. A MEDLINE research was performed
for all plant food groups relevant for a vegetarian diet (key words: all relevant food
groups, "vegetarian diet", "chronic disease", "cancer", "cardiovascular disease", "diabetes
mellitus", "osteoporosis"). All relevant food groups were characterized regarding their
nutrient content and rated with respect to the available metabolicepidemiological
evidence. Based on the evidence criteria of the WHO/FAO, cancer risk reduction by
a high intake of vegetables and fruits is assessed as probable or possible, while a
lowered risk of cardiovascular disease is convincing and a lowered risk of
osteoporosis is probable. The evidence of a risk reducing effect of whole grain
relating to colorectal cancer is assessed as possible, whereas it is probable relating to
cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus type 2. There is an insufficient risk
reducing effect of legumes like soja relating to epithelial tumours and cardiovascular
disease. The evidence of a riskreducing effect of nuts to cardiovascular disease is
assessed as probable, and in relation to cholelithiasis and diabetes mellitus type 2 as
possible and insufficient, respectively. In conclusion, high consumption of fruits,
vegetables, whole grains and nuts can lower the risk for several chronic diseases . 19. [Vegetarian nutrition: preventive potential and possible risks. Part 2:
animal foods and recommendations] [Article in German] Strohle A, Waldmann A, Wolters M, Hahn A. Abteilung Ernahrungsphysiologie und
Humanernahrung, Institut fur Lebensmittelwissenschaft, Zentrum Angewandte Chemie
der Universitat Hannover, Deutschland. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2006 Dec;118(2324):72837. INTRODUCTION: As shown in the first part of this article, consuming high amounts of
fruits, vegetables, whole grains and nuts can lower the risk for several chronic diseases.
However, the relevance of animal foods consumed within a vegetarian diet is less well
known. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We followed a nutritive and a metabolic
epidemiological approach to obtain dietary recommendations. A MEDLINEresearch was
performed for all animal food groups relevant with a vegetarian diet (key words: "eggs",
"milk", "dietary pattern" "vegetarian diet", "cancer", "cardiovascular disease", "diabetes
mellitus", "osteoporosis", "vitamin D", "vitamin B(12)", "iron", "iodine"). All relevant 17 food groups were characterized regarding their nutrient content and rated with respect to
the available metabolicepidemiological evidence. RESULTS: Based on the evidence
criteria of the WHO/FAO, colorectal cancer risk reduction by a high intake of milk
and milk products is assessed as probable, while a higher risk of prostate and
ovarial carcinomas is also probable. The evidence of a riskincreasing effect of eggs
relating to cardiovascular disease, colorectal cancer and breast cancer is assessed as
probable. As the data of prospective cohort studies suggest, a prudent diet pattern
characterized high in fruits, vegetables, whole grains and nuts is associated with a
lower risk of coronary heart disease and diabetes mellitus type 2. In contrast, there is
no overall association between prudent diet pattern and risk of breast cancer or colorectal
cancer. The critical key nutrients for vegetarians are vitamin D and B12, iodine and iron.
CONCLUSION: For the first time evidence based dietary recommendations were
provided for persons on a vegetarian diet in the DACHregion. 20. Health aspects of vegetarian diets. Dwyer JT. Tufts University School of Medicine, New England Medical Center
Hospital, Boston, MA 02111. Am J Clin Nutr. 1988 Sep;48(3 Suppl):71238. Recent studies of vegetarian diets and their effects on morbidity and mortality are
reviewed. Vegetarian diets are heterogeneous as are their effects on nutritional status,
health, and longevity. Mortality rates are similar or lower for vegetarians than for
nonvegetarians. Risks of dietary deficiency disease are increased on vegan but not on all
vegetarian diets. Evidence for decreased risks for certain chronic degenerative diseases
varies. Both vegetarian dietary and lifestyle practices are involved. Data are strong that
vegetarians are at lesser risk for obesity, atonic constipation, lung cancer, and
alcoholism. Evidence is good that risks for hypertension, coronary artery disease,
type II diabetes, and gallstones are lower. Data are only fair to poor that risks of
breast cancer, diverticular disease of the colon, colonic cancer, calcium kidney
stones, osteoporosis, dental erosion, and dental caries are lower among vegetarians .
Reduced risks for chronic degenerative diseases can also be achieved by manipulations of
omnivorous diets and lifestyles. 21. Free radical disease prevention and nutrition. KrajcovicovaKudlackova M, Ursinyova M, Blazicek P, Spustova V, Ginter E,
Hladikova V, Klvanova J. Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine, Bratislava,
Slovakia. Kudlackova@upkm.sk Bratisl Lek Listy. 2003;104(2):648. 18 An improved antioxidant status (overthreshold plasma values of essential
antioxidants) minimizes the oxidative damage. The levels of antioxidant vitamins C
and E, ,,antioxidant" trace elements selenium, zinc, copper and iron were measured
in two groups of adults with different nutritional habitsalternative (vegetarians;
n=110) and traditional (mixed diet, control, n=101) . The prevalence of iron and zinc
deficiencies was found in the alternative group (20% vs 11%iron, 13% vs 9%zinc) as
a consequence of higher intake of plant trace element absorption inhibitors. As opposed
to the latter, the control group had higher findings of iron and copper levels over the
optimal range (18% vs 8%iron, 11% vs 2%copper). The subjects on mixed diet was
showed a significant negative linear correlation between serum zinc and iron levels. This
favourable relationship means a decrease in Fenton reaction by indirect zinc effect.
Average plasma values of vitamin C, vitamin C/vitamin E, vitamin E/ cholesterol
(LDL protection), vitamin E/triacylglycerols (polyunsaturated fatty acid protection)
in vegetarians are over the threshold with high number of individual overthreshold
values (94% vs 17%vitamin C, 100% vs 58%vitamin C/vitamin E, 89% vs 68%
vitamin E/cholesterol, 100% vs 64%vitamin E/triacylglycerols). Homocysteine levels
in vegetarians (36% atherogenic levels) correlate significantly inversely to vitamin C
levels, the fact of which means a positive vitamin C effect in free radical remove also
in hyperhomocysteinemia. Plant food is a rich source of antioxidants. A correct
vegetarian nutrition or optimized mixed diets with regular and frequent
consumption of protective food commodities may be an effective contribution to the
agerelated chronic degenerative disease prevention . (Tab. 2, Fig. 2, Ref. 31.). 22. Selected vitamins and trace elements in blood of vegetarians. KrajcovicovaKudlackova M, Simoncic R, Babinska K, Bederova A, Brtkova A,
Magalova T, Grancicova E. Research Institute of Nutrition, Bratislava, Slovakia. Ann Nutr Metab. 1995;39(6):3349. Selected vitamin (A, C, E, betacarotene) and trace element (selenium, zinc, copper)
levels were estimated in the blood of 67 vegetarian nonsmokers aged 3460 years.
The average period of lacto or lactoovovegetarianism was 6.2 years. The results were
compared with those of 75 nonvegetarians of the same age and living in the same
region. Vegetarians had significantly higher plasma levels of essential antioxidants:
vitamin C, betacarotene, and vitamin A. A significantly higher molar ratio vitamin
E/cholesterol indicates a more effective protection especially of lowdensity
lipoproteins against peroxidation . Oxidation of lowdensity lipoproteins represents one
of the key factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. The molar ratio vitamin
E/total lipids was significantly higher in plasma of vegetarians, demonstrating a
more effective protection of polyunsaturated fatty acids against peroxidation .
Vegetarians had significantly higher plasma levels of selenium and similar levels of
zinc and copper when compared to nonvegetarians. These trace elements are
important for the activity of antioxidant enzymes. The results document a beneficial
effect of vegetarian nutritional habits on antioxidative parameters and thus on the 19 reduction of cardiovascular diseases and cancer risk. Reactive products of oxygen
metabolism and subsequent toxic products of lipid peroxidation play an important
role in the etiology of these diseases. 23. Antioxidant status in vegetarians versus omnivores. Rauma AL, Mykkanen H. Department of Teacher Education, University of Joensuu,
Savonlinna, Finland. AnnaLiisa.Rauma@joensuu.fi Nutrition. 2000 Feb;16(2):1119. Every day, vegetarians consume many carbohydraterich plant foods such as fruits
and vegetables, cereals, pulses, and nuts. As a consequence, their diet contains more
antioxidant vitamins (vitamin C, vitamin E, and betacarotene) and copper than
that of omnivores. Intake of zinc is generally comparable to that by omnivores .
However, the bioavailability of zinc in vegetarian diets is generally lower than that of
omnivores. Dietary intake of selenium is variable in both groups and depends on the
selenium content of the soil. Measurements of antioxidant body levels in vegetarians
show that a vegetarian diet maintains higher antioxidant vitamin status (vitamin C,
vitamin E, betacarotene) but variable antioxidant trace element status as compared
with an omnivorous diet. To evaluate the antioxidative potential of a vegetarian diet
versus an omnivorous diet, more studies are needed in which the total antioxidant
capacity is determined rather than the status of a single antioxidant nutrient. 24. Antioxidant status in longterm adherents to a strict uncooked vegan
diet. Rauma AL, Torronen R, Hanninen O, Verhagen H, Mykkanen H. Department of
Clinical Nutrition, University of Kuopio, Finland. Am J Clin Nutr. 1995 Dec;62(6):12217. Antioxidant status was investigated in 20 Finnish middleaged female vegans and in
one male vegan who were following a strict, uncooked vegan diet ("living food
diet"), by means of a dietary survey and biochemical measurements (blood
concentrations of vitamins C and E and betacarotene, and the activities of the
zinc/copperdependent superoxide dismutase and seleniumdependent glutathione
peroxidase). Values were compared with those of omnivores matched for sex, age, social
status, and residence. Antioxidant supplementation was used by 4 of 20 female vegans
and by 11 of 20 control subjects. Based on dietary records, the vegans had significantly
higher intakes of betacarotene, vitamin E, vitamin C, and copper, and a significantly
lower intake of selenium than the omnivorous control subjects. The calculated dietary
antioxidant intakes by the vegans, expressed as percentages of the US recommended
dietary allowances, were as follows: 305% of vitamin C, 247% of vitamin A, 313% of
vitamin E, 92% of zinc, 120% of copper, and 49% of selenium. Compared with the 20 omnivores, the vegans had significantly higher blood concentrations of betacarotene,
vitamin C, and vitamin E, as well as higher erythrocyte superoxide dismutase activity.
These differences were also seen in pairs who were using no antioxidant supplements .
The present data indicate that the "living food diet" provides significantly more
dietary antioxidants than does the cooked, omnivorous diet, and that the longterm
adherents to this diet have a better antioxidant status than do omnivorous control
subjects. 25. Dietary intakes and blood concentrations of antioxidant vitamins in
German vegans. Waldmann A , Koschizke JW , Leitzmann C, Hahn A. Institute of Food Science,
University of Hanover, Germany. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2005 Jan;75(1):2836. We report on an evaluation of intake and blood concentrations of antioxidant
vitamins in a crosssectional study of 104 German vegans, and examine the
association between blood concentration of antioxidant vitamins and their intake as
well as fruit and vegetable intake . Comparisons are made with dietary reference
intakes and established threshold values (ETV) for blood concentrations. Mean intakes
of vitamin C, E, and betacarotene were higher than actual recommendations, but
comparable to reported intakes in other vegan cohorts. Mean blood concentrations were
0.76 micromol/L for betacarotene and 117 micromol/L for vitamin C, so that nearly all
participants showed concentrations that were above the ETV for the prevention of
chronic diseases. Although mean vitamin E intake was 24.8 mg/day, only 32% of female
and 18% of male participants showed plasma concentrations above the ETV. However,
the mean vitamin E/cholesterol ratio was high (5.97), indicating a good protection of low
density lipoprotein (LDL) against peroxidation. Of the reported antioxidant vitamins,
only plasma vitamin C concentration was a good biomarker of fruit and vegetable
intake. The high concentration of antioxidative compounds in plasma may be one of
the reasons for the lower incidence of chronic diseases in people consuming a plant
only diet. 26. Does a vegetarian diet influence genomic stability? Kazimirova A, Barancokova M, Volkovova K, Staruchova M, Krajcovicova
Kudlackova M, Wsolova L, Collins AR, Dusinska M. Institute of Preventive and
Clinical Medicine, Limbova 14, 83301, Bratislava, Slovakia. Eur J Nutr. 2004 Feb;43(1):328. Epub 2004 Jan 6. 21 BACKGROUND: The vegetarian lifestyle is supposedly healthy, and differences
between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in biomarkers related to diseases such as
cancer might be expected . AIM OF THE STUDY: To investigate the possible role of
different diets in maintaining genomic stability. METHODS: The vegetarian group,
consisting of 24 volunteers (13 women and 11 men), were matched for age and sex with
24 volunteers (12 women and 12 men) with a traditional dietary habit.Among vegetarians
there were 13 lactoovovegetarians (8 women, 5 men) with average length of vegetarian
diet 10.8 years (ranging from 5 to 26) and 11 lactovegetarians (5 women, 6 men) with
average length of vegetarian diet 8.2 years (ranging from 3 to15). All volunteers were
nonsmokers, nonconsumers of alcohol and had similar education and patterns of
physical activity. Chromosome aberrations, micronuclei and DNA damage (strand
breaks, oxidised bases and H(2)O(2)sensitivity) were examined in peripheral blood
lymphocytes of vegetarians and nonvegetarians. Plasma antioxidant status was assessed
with the FRAP assay. RESULTS: We did not find any differences in percentage of cells
with chromosome aberrations or in the frequency of micronuclei between vegetarians and
nonvegetarians or between lactoovo and lactovegetarians. There was no statistically
significant difference in total antioxidant capacity between the groups. The group with
traditional dietary habits had significantly higher levels of oxidative DNA damage (strand
breaks and oxidised purines, P = 0.005) compared with vegetarians. A significant positive
correlation between age and oxidative DNA damage (net FPGsensitive sites) was found
in nonvegetarians, while there was an opposite trend towards a negative association in
vegetarians. On the other hand chromosome aberrations correlated with age in
vegetarians (r = 0.48, P = 0.017) but not in nonvegetarians. CONCLUSIONS: Our
results indicate that a vegetarian diet can lead to a slight decrease in oxidative DNA
damage in lymphocytes, but other markers of genetic stability are not affected. The
lowest level of DNA damage was found in lymphocytes of lactovegetarians,
(especially oxidised pyrimidines, P = 0.0017), suggesting that this diet provides some
protection against oxidative stress. 22 II. Excretory System 1. LowProtein Vegetarian Diet with AlphaChetoanalogues Prior to Pre
emptive PancreasKidney Transplantation. Piccoli GB , Motta D, Martina G, Consiglio V, Gai M, Mezza E, Maddalena E,
Burdese M, Colla L, Tattoli F, Anania P, Rossetti M, Soragna G, Grassi G, Dani F,
Jeantet A, Segoloni GP. Chair of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine,
University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 16, 10126 Torino, Italy. Rev Diabet Stud. 2004 Summer;1(2):95102. Epub 2004 Aug 10. BACKGROUND: Preemptive pancreaskidney transplanttation is increasingly
considered the best therapy for irreversible chronic kidney disease (CKD) in type 1
diabetics. However, the best approach in the wait for transplantation has not yet been
defined. AIM: To evaluate our experience with a lowprotein (0.6 g/kg/day) vegetarian
diet supplemented with alphachetoanalogues in type 1 diabetic patients in the wait for
pancreaskidney transplantation. METHODS: Prospective study. Information on the
progression of renal disease, compliance, metabolic control, reasons for choice and for
dropout were recorded prospectively; the data for the subset of patients who underwent
the diet while awaiting a pancreaskidney graft are analysed in this report. RESULTS:
From November 1998 to April 2004, 9 type 1 diabetic patients, waitlisted or performing
tests for waitlisting for pancreaskidney transplantation, started the diet. All of them
were followed by nephrologists and diabetologists, in the context of integrated care.
There were 4 males and 5 females; median age 38 years (range 27.945.5); median
diabetes duration 23.8 years (range 16.633.1), 8/9 with widespread organ damage;
median creatinine at the start of the diet: 3.2 mg/dl (1.27.2); 4 patients followed the diet
to transplantation, 2 are presently on the diet, 2 dropped out and started dialysis after a
few months, 1 started dialysis (rescue treatment). The nutritional status remained stable,
glycemia control improved in 4 patients in the short term and in 2 in the long term, no
hyperkalemia, acidosis or other relevant side effect was recorded. Proteinuria decreased
in 5 cases, in 3 from the nephrotic range. Albumin levels remained stable; the progression
rate was a loss of 0.47 ml/min of creatinine clearance per month (ranging from an
increase of 0.06 to a decrease of 2.4 ml/min) during the diet period (estimated by the
CockroftGault formula). CONCLUSIONS: Lowprotein supplemented vegetarian
diets may be a useful tool to slow CKD progression whilst awaiting pancreaskidney
transplantation. 23 2. [Nutrition and colorectal cancer] [Article in German] Strohle A, Maike W, Hahn A. Institut fur Lebensmittelwissenschaft, Zentrum
Angewandte Chemie, Universitat Hannover, Wunstorfer Str. 14, 30453 Hannover.
alexander.stroehle@lw.unihannover.de Med Monatsschr Pharm. 2007 Jan;30(1):2532. Diet plays an important role in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer. Current prospective
cohort studies and metaanalysis enable a reevaluation of how food or nutrients such as
fiber and fat influence cancer risk. Based on the evidence criteria of the WHO/FAD,
risk reduction by a high intake of fruit is assessed as possible, while a lowered risk
by a high vegetable intake is probable. Especially raw vegetables and fruits seem to
exert anticancer properties. The evidence of a risk reducing effect of whole grain
relating to colorectal cancer is assessed as probable whereas the evidence of an
increased risk by high consumption of refined white flour products and sweets is (still)
insufficient despite some evidences. There is a probable risk reducing effect of milk and
dairy products. e available data on eggs and red meat indicate a possible risk
increasing influence. Stronger clues for a risk increasing effect have been shown for
meat products leading to an evidence assessed as probable. Owing to varied
interpretations of the data on fiber, the evidence of a risk reducing effect relating to
colorectal cancer is assessed as possible or insufficient. The available data on alcohol
consumption indicate a possible risk increasing effect. In contrast to former evaluations,
diets rich in fat seem to increase colorectal cancer risk only indirectly as part of a
hypercaloric diet by advancing the obesity risk. Thus, the evidence of obesity, especially
visceral obesity, as a risk of colorectal cancer is judged as convincing today. Prospective
cohort studies suggest that people who get higher than average amounts of folic acid from
multivitamin supplements have lower risks of colorectal cancer. The evidence for a risk
reducing effect of calcium, selenium, vitamin D and vitamin E on colorectal cancer is
insufficient. As primary prevention, a diet rich in vegetables, fruits, whole grain
products, and legumes added by lowfat dairy products, fish, and poultry can be
recommended. In contrast the consumption of sweets, refined white flour products
and meat products should be reduced. 3. Diet and risk of colorectal cancer in a cohort of Finnish men. Pietinen P, Malila N, Virtanen M, Hartman TJ, Tangrea JA, Albanes D, Virtamo J.
Department of Nutrition, National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland. Cancer Causes Control. 1999 Oct;10(5):38796. OBJECTIVES: Based on previous epidemiological studies, high fat and meat
consumption may increase and fiber, calcium, and vegetable consumption may decrease
the risk of colorectal cancer. We sought to address these hypotheses in a male Finnish 24 cohort. METHODS: We analyzed data from the AlphaTocopherol, BetaCarotene
Cancer Prevention Study (ATBC Study) where 27, 111 male smokers completed a
validated dietary questionnaire at baseline. After an average of 8 years of followup, we
documented 185 cases of colorectal cancer. The analyses were carried out using the Cox
proportional hazards model. RESULTS: The relative risk (RR) for men in the highest
quartile of calcium intake compared with men in the lowest quartile was 0.6 (95% CI 0.4
0.9, p for trend 0.04). Likewise, the intake of milk protein and the consumption of milk
products was inversely associated with risk of colorectal cancer. However, intake of
dietary fiber was not associated with risk, nor was fat intake. Consumption of meat or
different types of meat, and fried meat, fruits or vegetables were not associated with risk.
CONCLUSIONS: In this cohort of men consuming a diet high in fat, meat, and
fiber and low in vegetables, high calcium intake was associated with lowered risk of
colorectal cancer. 4. Comparison of a vegetablebased (soya) and an animalbased low
protein diet in predialysis chronic renal failure patients. Soroka N , Silverberg DS, Greemland M, Birk Y, Blum M, Peer G, Iaina A.
Department of Nephrology, Tel Aviv Medical Center, Israel. Nephron. 1998;79(2):17380. There is some experimental evidence to suggest that progression of chronic renal
failure (CRF) is slower on diets based on soya protein than on diets based on animal
protein . We have compared the effect of a soyabased vegetarian lowprotein diet
(VPD) and an animalbased lowprotein diet (APD) in 15 patients with CRF. 15
patients with CRF (51CrEDTAmeasured glomerular filtration rate 1550 ml/min/1.73
m2) were studied. In a randomized crossover trial, the patients were given each diet (each
containing 0.75 g protein and 32 kcal per kilogram body weight) for a 6month period.
Nine patients completed the trial, 2 others dropped out because they could not tolerate the
VPD, 3 because of unrelated medical complications, and 1 for technical reasons. The
caloric intake was higher and the protein, phosphate and essential amino acid intake
lower on the VPD than on the APD. The compliance with the suggested caloric intake
was better with the VPD than with the APD (97 vs. 88% of recommended intake), as was
the compliance with the suggested protein intake (94 vs. 112% of recommended intake)
and with the suggested phosphate intake (102 vs. 116%). The mean glomerular filtration
rate, as judged by 51CrEDTA, was similar after 6 months on each diet and remained
unchanged throughout the entire year of the study. The rate of fall of glomerular
filtration, as measured by the slope of 1/serum creatinine was slowed by 73% during the
1year study period as compared with the prestudy period. Nutritional status (as measured
by body mass index, midarm circumference, and lean body mass and percent body fat),
serum transferrin, cholesterol and albumin, and total lymphocyte count were similar on
the two diets. The serum albumin level on both diets, however, was significantly higher
on the two diets than during the prediet period. Blood urea nitrogen, urine urea nitrogen, 25 protein catabolic rate, and 24hour urine creatinine and phosphate were lower on the VPD
than on the APD. The 24hour protein excretion was similar on the two diets. The two
lowprotein diets resulted in a slowing in the progression of CRF. A VPD is well
tolerated in CRF and is associated with lower protein and phosphate intakes and a
higher caloric intake than an APD and may, therefore, be used as a safe alternative
or partial substitute for the usual APD in CRF. 5. A lownitrogen lowphosphorus Vegan diet for patients with chronic
renal failure. Barsotti G , Morelli E , Cupisti A, Meola M, Dani L, Giovannetti S. Clinica Medica
I, Universita di Pisa, Italia. Nephron. 1996;74(2):3904. The nutritional treatment of chronic renal failure with a lowprotein low
phosphorus diet (conventional lowprotein diet, CLPD) is effective in reducing
uremic intoxication, slowing the progression of renal failure and preventing
secondary hyperparathyroidism. Unfortunately, in some patients, the poor palatability
and the high cost of the proteinfree substitutes, together with difficulties in following the
diet away from home, can make good compliance difficult, possibly causing low energy
intake and malnutrition. Here the results are reported of an attempt we made to overcome
these drawbacks, using a diet supplying only natural foods of plant origin in definite
proportions to give an essential amino acid supply satisfying the recommended
dietary allowance. This is possible thanks to an appropriate cereallegume mixture,
supplying proteins complementary for essential amino acids. Additional positive
features of this special vegan diet (SVD) are the high ratio of unsaturated to
saturated fatty acids, the absence of cholesterol, and the lower net acid production
in comparison with a mixed diet. This study indicates that the results obtained with
the SVD are similar to those obtained with the CLPD. Therefore the SVD can be a
substitute for the CLPD in the management of patients with mild chronic renal
failure. The SVD is the diet of choice when products made of starch are not
available or poorly tolerated . 6. Cardiovascular risk factors in severe chronic renal failure: the role of
dietary treatment. Bergesio F , Monzani G, Guasparini A, Ciuti R, Gallucci M, Cristofano C,
Castrignano E, Cupisti A, Barsotti G, Marcucci R, Abbate R, Bandini S, Gallo M,
Tosi PL, Salvadori M. Department of Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplantation,
Azienda Ospedale Careggi, Florence, Italy. fraberge@tin.it Clin Nephrol. 2005 Aug;64(2):10312. 26 BACKGROUND: Lipoprotein abnormalities and increased oxidized LDL (OxLDL)
are often observed in uremia and are reported to play a central role in the
development of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Vegan diet, known for its better
lipoprotein profile and antioxidant vitamins content, could protect against CVD.
Aim of this study was to investigate the influence of vegan diet supplemented with
essential amino acids (EAA) and ketoanalogues (VSD) on both traditional and non
traditional cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF). METHODS: Twentynine patients (18
M, 11 F) aged 55 years (range 2979 years) with advanced chronic renal failure (median
sCr: 5.6 mg/dl) on very low protein vegetarian diet (0.3 g/kg/day) supplemented with a
mixture of EAA and ketoacids (VSD) and 31 patients (20 M, 11 F) aged 65 years (range
29 82 years) on conventional lowprotein diet (CD: 0.6 g/kg/day) with a similar renal
function (median sCr: 5.2 mg/dl), were investigated for lipids and apolipoprotein
parameters (traditional CVRF) as well as for oxidative stress (oxidized LDL, antibodies
against OxLDL and thiobarbituric acidreactive substances (TBARS)), total
homocysteine (tHcy), lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)), albumin and creactive protein (CRP) (non
traditional CVRF) including vitamins A, E, B12 and folic acid. RESULTS: Compared to
patients on CD, those on VSD showed increased HDL cholesterol levels (p < 0.005) with
a reduction of LDL cholesterol (p < 0.01) and an increase of apoA1/apoB ratio (p < 0.02).
Among nontraditional CVRF, a mild but significant reduction of OxLDL (p < 0.05) with
lower TBARS concentrations (p < 0.01) and a significant reduction of total homocysteine
(p < 0.002), Lp(a) (p < 0.002) and CRP levels (p < 0.05) were also observed in these
patients. Concentrations of vitamin E and A were not different between the two groups
while vitamin B12 and folic acid resulted markedly increased in patients on VSD.
OxLDL significantly correlated with total and LDL cholesterol, triglycerides and Apo B
in CD but not in VSD patients. Patients on CD also showed a significant correlation
between urea and CRP. After a multivariate analysis, only urea (p < 0.001) and OxLDL
(p < 0.006) were associated to a risk of CRP > 0.3 mg/dl. CONCLUSIONS: These
results indicate a better lipoprotein profile in patients on vegan diet including non
traditional CVRF. In particular, these patients show a reduced oxidative stress with
a reduced acutephase response (CRP) as compared to patients on conventional diet.
We hypothesize that urea, significantly lower in patients on VSD, may account,
possibly together with the reduction of other protein breakdown products, for the
decreased acutephase response observed in these patients. Our findings suggest
that lowprotein diets, and vegan in particular, may exert a beneficial effect on the
development of cardiovascular disease in patients with endstage renal disease
(ESRD). 7. Lp(a) levels: effects of progressive chronic renal failure and dietary
manipulation. Monzani G , Bergesio F , Ciuti R, Ciciani AM, Martinelli F, Rosati A, Salvadori M.
Department of Nephrology, USL Azienda 10, Florence, Italy. 27 J Nephrol. 1997 JanFeb;10(1):415. Patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) have an increased risk of cardiovascular
disease (CVD). Elevated lipoprotein(a) (LP(a)) levels have been shown to be an
important risk factor for CVD. This study examined Lp(a) changes during the
progression of renal disease in patients following different dietary regimens. Fifty
seven patients with CRF of different etiology and degree (mean age 58 +/ 10 yrs) were
divided into four groups according to their serum creatinine (sCr) levels. The first group
had sCr 1.53; the second 36; the third > 6, all on a conventional lowprotein diet
(CLPD), and the fourth had sCr > 6 on a supplemented vegetarian diet (SVD). Lp(a),
apoproteins AI, B, E, CII, CIII, CII/CIII, Apo A/Apo B ratios and the lipid pattern (total
cholesterol (TC) and its fractions LDL, HDL, HDL3 and triglycerides) were investigated.
Patients with diabetes, proteinuria > 1.5 g/24 h, hepatic disease or taking contraceptives
or lipid lowering drugs were excluded. Results were compared with a reference group (N
= 12) with sCcr < 1. Lp(a) concentrations increased with the progression of renal failure,
and a significant correlation was observed with sCr. Despite the elevated sCr levels,
patients on the SVD had an almost normal Lp(a) concentration. Only 15% of the
reference group had Lp(a) levels > 30 mg/dl, compared to 33%, 50% and 78% of the 1st,
2nd and 3rd groups and 38% of the 4th group. No relationship was found between Lp(a),
lipids or apoproteins. Our results indicate that renal function influences Lp(a) levels
and suggest a SVD helps to lower them. This might be ascribed to some antioxidant
factors in the SVD. 8. Autoantibodies against oxidized LDL in chronic renal failure: role of
renal function, diet, and lipids. Bergesio F , Monzani G, Ciuti R, Cirami C, Martinelli F, Salvadori M, Tosi PL. Nephrology and Dialysis Units, Azienda Ospedaliera Careggi, Florence, Italy. Nephron. 2001 Feb;87(2):12733. Lipid peroxidation (LP) has recently been suggested to trigger the atherosclerotic
process as well as to worsen the progression of renal disease. Autoantibodies against
oxidized lowdensity lipoproteins (OxLDLAb) were considered to provide a sensitive
marker to detect LDL oxidation in vivo. To date few studies have been reported on Ox
LDLAb levels in patients with different degrees of renal failure. The aim of this study
was to evaluate the influences of renal function, dietary manipulation, and lipids on Ox
LDLAb concentrations in uremic patients either on conservative or replacement therapy.
Seventyone patients (42 males, 29 females) aged 60 +/ 19 years with chronic renal
failure (CRF) of different etiology and degree were divided into four groups according
to serum creatinine levels [sCr(mg/dl)] and diet: CRF I > or = 1.53.0, CRF II > 3.05.5,
and CRF III > 5.5 were all patients on a conventional lowprotein diet, while a fourth
group included patients on a vegetarian diet supplemented with keto analogues and amino 28 acids (CRF SD >3.0). A further group was represented by patients on dialysis therapy.
All patients were examined for OxLDLAb, triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol, HDL
and LDL cholesterol, and apolipoproteins Apo A1, Apo B, and Lp(a). The results were
compared with those of 20 controls (9 males and 11 females) aged 52 +/ 11 years with
sCr < 1.5 mg/dl. OxLDLAb increased, although not significantly, with TG and Lp(a)
from the early stages of CRF along with the deterioration of renal function. However, TG
and Lp(a) levels were significantly higher in all groups of patients except those on
vegetarian diet (CRF SD). This group also showed the lowest OxLDLAb levels. No
relationship was observed between lipids or apolipoproteins and OxLDLAb.
Hyperlipidemic patients did not show higher OxLDLAb levels than normolipidemics.
Our results show a progressive increase of LP as the renal function declines, which
may account for the increased risk of cardiovascular disease reported in uremia.
Dialysis does not correct significantly the oxidative state observed in patients with
endstage renal disease. Vegan diet, by reducing LP, TG, and Lp(a), is supposed to
decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease and worth being reconsidered as an
alternative effective therapeutic tool in patients with advanced CRF. Copyright 2001
S. Karger AG, Basel. III. Circulatory System 1. Hypertension and blood pressure among meat eaters, fish eaters,
vegetarians and vegans in EPICOxford. Appleby PN , Davey GK, Key TJ. Cancer Research UK, Epidemiology Unit,
University of Oxford, Gibson Building, The Radcliffe Infirmary, UK.
Paul.Appleby@cancer.org.uk Public Health Nutr. 2002 Oct;5(5):64554. OBJECTIVE: To compare the prevalence of selfreported hypertension and mean systolic
and diastolic blood pressures in four diet groups (meat eaters, fish eaters, vegetarians and
vegans) and to investigate dietary and other lifestyle factors that might account for any
differences observed between the groups. DESIGN: Analysis of crosssectional data from
participants in the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer
and Nutrition (EPICOxford). SETTING: United Kingdom. SUBJECTS: Eleven
thousand and four British men and women aged 2078 years at blood pressure 29 measurement. RESULTS: The ageadjusted prevalence of selfreported hypertension
was significantly different between the four diet groups, ranging from 15.0% in
male meat eaters to 5.8% in male vegans, and from 12.1% in female meat eaters to
7.7% in female vegans, with fish eaters and vegetarians having similar and
intermediate prevalences. Mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures were
significantly different between the four diet groups, with meat eaters having the highest
values and vegans the lowest values. The differences in ageadjusted mean blood
pressure between meat eaters and vegans among participants with no selfreported
hypertension were 4.2 and 2.6 mmHg systolic and 2.8 and 1.7 mmHg diastolic for men
and women, respectively. Much of the variation was attributable to differences in body
mass index between the diet groups. CONCLUSIONS: Nonmeat eaters, especially
vegans, have a lower prevalence of hypertension and lower systolic and diastolic
blood pressures than meat eaters, largely because of differences in body mass index. 2. Longterm effects of a vegetarian diet on the nutritional status of elderly
people (Dutch Nutrition Surveillance System). Lowik MR , Schrijver J, Odink J, van den Berg H, Wedel M. Department of Human
Nutrition, TNOCIVO Toxicology and Nutrition Institute, Zeist, The Netherlands. J Am Coll Nutr. 1990 Dec;9(6):6009. The health and nutritional status (anthropometry, and blood and urine
biochemistry) of 44 Dutch apparently healthy vegetarians, aged 6597 years,
refraining from meat, fish, and poultry consumption, was assessed for insight into
longterm consequences of ovolacto or lactovegetarianism. The results indicate that
in comparison to omnivorous elderly the vegetarian elderly (especially men) have
aged successfully with respect to cardiovascular risk factors . In contrast, vegetarian
elderly are at a higher risk for a marginal iron, zinc, and vitamin B12 status. Although
several vegetarian elderly showed low levels of 25hydroxyvitamin D in plasma and
many had low values of 24hr urine volume (per kg body weight), these values are not
likely the result of a vegetarian diet per se. It is concluded that, although some
nutritionrelated risks are prevalent among vegetarian elderly, these risks can
probably be prevented by lifestyle changes. 3. The effect of combining plant sterols, soy protein, viscous fibers, and
almonds in treating hypercholesterolemia. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner D, Vidgen E, Lapsley KG,
Trautwein EA, Parker TL, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Connelly PW. Clinical Nutrition
and Risk Factor Modification Center, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Metabolism. 2003 Nov;52(11):147883. 30 Reductions in lowdensity lipoproteincholesterol (LDLC) result from diets
containing almonds, or diets that are either low in saturated fat or high in viscous
fibers, soy proteins, or plant sterols. We have therefore combined all of these
interventions in a single diet (portfolio diet) to determine whether cholesterol
reductions could be achieved of similar magnitude to those reported in recent statin
trials which reduced cardiovascular events. Twentyfive hyperlipidemic subjects
consumed either a portfolio diet (n=13), very low in saturated fat and high in plant sterols
(1.2 g/1,000 kcal), soy protein (16.2 g/1,000 kcal), viscous fibers (8.3 g/1,000 kcal), and
almonds ( 16.6 g/1,000 kcal), or a lowsaturated fat diet (n=12) based on wholewheat
cereals and lowfat dairy foods. Fasting blood, blood pressure, and body weight were
obtained at weeks 0, 2, and 4 of each phase. LDLC was reduced by 12.1% +/ 2.4%
(P<.001) on the lowfat diet and by 35.0% +/ 3.1% (P<.001) on the portfolio diet, which
also reduced the ratio of LDLC to highdensity lipoproteincholesterol (HDLC)
significantly (30.0% +/ 3.5%; P<.001). The reductions in LDLC and the LDL:HDL
C ratio were both significantly lower on the portfolio diet than on the control diet
(P<.001 and P<.001, respectively). Mean weight loss was similar on test and control diets
( 1.0 kg and 0.9 kg, respectively). No difference was seen in blood pressure, HDLC,
serum triglycerides, lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)], or homocysteine concentrations between
diets. Combining a number of foods and food components in a single dietary
portfolio may lower LDLC similarly to statins and so increase the potential
effectiveness of dietary therapy. 4. A dietary portfolio approach to cholesterol reduction: combined effects
of plant sterols, vegetable proteins, and viscous fibers in
hypercholesterolemia. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Faulkner D, Vidgen E, Trautwein EA, Parker TL,
Marchie A, Koumbridis G, Lapsley KG, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Connelly PW.
Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, Division of Endocrinology and
Metabolism, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Metabolism. 2002 Dec;51(12):1596604. Plant sterols, soy proteins, and viscous fibers are advised for cholesterol reduction
but their combined effect has never been tested. We therefore assessed their
combined effect on blood lipids in hyperlipidemic subjects who were already
consuming a lowsaturated fat, lowcholesterol diet before starting the study . The
test (combination) diet was 1 month in duration and was very low in saturated fat and
high in plant sterols (1 g/1,000 kcal), soy protein (23 g/1,000 kcal), and viscous fibers (9
g/1,000 kcal) obtained from foods available in supermarkets and health food stores. One
subject also completed 2 further diet periods: a lowfat control diet and a control diet plus
20 mg/d lovastatin. Fasting blood lipids, blood pressure, and body weight were measured
prior to and at weekly intervals during the study. The combination diet was rated as 31 acceptable and very filling. The diet reduced lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL)cholesterol
by 29.0% +/ 2.7% (P <.001) and the ratio of LDLcholesterol to highdensity lipoprotein
(HDL)cholesterol by 26.5% +/ 3.4% (P <.001). Near maximal reductions were seen by
week 2. In the subject who took Mevacor and control diets each for 4 weeks, the
reduction in LDL:HDLcholesterol on Mevacor was similar to the combination diet. We
conclude that acceptable diets of foods from supermarkets and health food stores
that contain recognized cholesterollowering dietary components in combination (a
dietary portfolio) may be as effective as the starting dose of older firstline drugs in
managing hypercholesterolemia. Copyright 2002, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights
reserved. 5. Effects of a dietary portfolio of cholesterollowering foods vs lovastatin
on serum lipids and Creactive protein. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Wong JM, de Souza R, Emam
A, Parker TL, Vidgen E, Lapsley KG, Trautwein EA, Josse RG, Leiter LA,
Connelly PW. Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, St Michael's
Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. cyril.kendall@utoronto.ca JAMA. 2003 Jul 23;290(4):50210. CONTEXT: To enhance the effectiveness of diet in lowering cholesterol,
recommendations of the Adult Treatment Panel III of the National Cholesterol
Education Program emphasize diets low in saturated fat together with plant sterols
and viscous fibers, and the American Heart Association supports the use of soy
protein and nuts. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a diet containing all of these
recommended food components leads to cholesterol reduction comparable with that of 3
hydroxy3methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins). DESIGN:
Randomized controlled trial conducted between October and December 2002. SETTING
AND PARTICIPANTS: Fortysix healthy, hyperlipidemic adults (25 men and 21
postmenopausal women) with a mean (SE) age of 59 (1) years and body mass index of
27.6 (0.5), recruited from a Canadian hospitalaffiliated nutrition research center and the
community. INTERVENTIONS: Participants were randomly assigned to undergo 1 of 3
interventions on an outpatient basis for 1 month: a diet very low in saturated fat, based on
milled wholewheat cereals and lowfat dairy foods (n = 16; control); the same diet plus
lovastatin, 20 mg/d (n = 14); or a diet high in plant sterols (1.0 g/1000 kcal), soy
protein (21.4 g/1000 kcal), viscous fibers (9.8 g/1000 kcal), and almonds (14 g/1000
kcal) (n = 16; dietary portfolio). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Lipid and C
reactive protein levels, obtained from fasting blood samples; blood pressure; and body
weight; measured at weeks 0, 2, and 4 and compared among the 3 treatment groups.
RESULTS: The control, statin, and dietary portfolio groups had mean (SE) decreases in
lowdensity lipoprotein cholesterol of 8.0% (2.1%) (P =.002), 30.9% (3.6%) (P<.001),
and 28.6% (3.2%) (P<.001), respectively. Respective reductions in Creactive protein
were 10.0% (8.6%) (P =.27), 33.3% (8.3%) (P =.002), and 28.2% (10.8%) (P =.02). The 32 significant reductions in the statin and dietary portfolio groups were all significantly
different from changes in the control group. There were no significant differences in
efficacy between the statin and dietary portfolio treatments. CONCLUSION: In this
study, diversifying cholesterollowering components in the same dietary portfolio
increased the effectiveness of diet as a treatment of hypercholesterolemia . 6. The effect on serum lipids and oxidized lowdensity lipoprotein of
supplementing selfselected lowfat diets with solublefiber, soy, and
vegetable protein foods. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Vidgen E, Mehling CC, Parker T, Seyler H, Faulkner D,
Garsetti M, Griffin LC, Agarwal S, Rao AV, Cunnane SC, Ryan MA, Connelly PW,
Leiter LA, Vuksan V, Josse R. Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification
Center, Department of Medicine, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Metabolism. 2000 Jan;49(1):6772. An increased intake of soluble fiber and soy protein may improve the blood lipid
profile. To assess any additional benefit on serum lipids of providing soy protein
and solublefiber foods to hyperlipidemic subjects already consuming lowfat, low
cholesterol therapeutic diets, 20 hyperlipidemic men and postmenopausal women
completed 8week test and control dietary treatments in a randomized crossover
design as part of an ad libitum National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) step 2
therapeutic diet (<7% saturated fat and <200 mg/d cholesterol). During the test phase,
foods high in soy, other vegetable proteins, and soluble fiber were provided. During the
control phase, lowfat dairy and lowsolublefiber foods were provided. Fasting blood
lipid and apolipoprotein levels were measured at 4 and 8 weeks of each phase. On the test
diet, 12 +/ 2 g/d soy protein was selected from the foods chosen. Direct comparison of
test and control treatments indicated an elevated highdensity lipoprotein (HDL)
cholesterol concentration on the test diet ( 6.4% +/ 2.4%, P = .013) and a significantly
reduced total to HDL cholesterol ratio (5.9% +/ 2.3%, P = .020). The proportion of
conjugated dienes in the lowdensity lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol fraction was
significantly reduced ( 8.5% +/ 3.3%, P = .020) as a marker of oxidized LDL. A
combination of acceptable amounts of soy, vegetable protein, and solublefiber foods
as part of a conventional lowfat, lowcholesterol therapeutic diet is effective in
further reducing serum lipid risk factors for cardiovascular disease. 7. Assessment of the longerterm effects of a dietary portfolio of
cholesterollowering foods in hypercholesterolemia. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Faulkner DA, Nguyen T, Kemp T, Marchie A, Wong JM,
de Souza R, Emam A, Vidgen E, Trautwein EA, Lapsley KG, Holmes C, Josse RG,
Leiter LA, Connelly PW, Singer W. Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification 33 Center, St Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 Mar;83(3):58291. BACKGROUND: Cholesterollowering foods may be more effective when consumed as
combinations rather than as single foods. OBJECTIVES: Our aims were to determine the
effectiveness of consuming a combination of cholesterollowering foods (dietary
portfolio) under realworld conditions and to compare these results with published data
from the same participants who had undergone 4wk metabolic studies to compare the
same dietary portfolio with the effects of a statin. DESIGN: For 12 mo, 66
hyperlipidemic participants were prescribed diets high in plant sterols (1.0 g/1000
kcal), soy protein (22.5 g/1000 kcal), viscous fibers (10 g/1000 kcal), and almonds (23
g/1000 kcal). Fiftyfive participants completed the 1y study. The 1y data were also
compared with published results on 29 of the participants who had also undergone
separate 1mo metabolic trials of a diet and a statin. RESULTS: At 3 mo and 1 y, mean
(+/SE) LDLcholesterol reductions appeared stable at 14.0 +/ 1.6% (P < 0.001) and 12.8
+/ 2.0% (P < 0.001), respectively (n = 66). These reductions were less than those
observed after the 1mo metabolic diet and statin trials. Nevertheless, 31.8% of the
participants (n = 21 of 66) had LDLcholesterol reductions of >20% at 1 y (x +/ SE:
29.7 +/ 1.6%). The LDLcholesterol reductions in this group were not significantly
different from those seen after their respective metabolically controlled portfolio or statin
treatments. A correlation was found between total dietary adherence and LDLcholesterol
change (r = 0.42, P < 0.001). Only 2 of the 26 participants with <55% compliance
achieved LDLcholesterol reductions >20% at 1 y. CONCLUSIONS: More than 30%
of motivated participants who ate the dietary portfolio of cholesterollowering foods
under realworld conditions were able to lower LDLcholesterol concentrations
>20%, which was not significantly different from their response to a firstgeneration
statin taken under metabolically controlled conditions. 8. Direct comparison of dietary portfolio vs statin on Creactive protein. Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Josse AR, Wong JM, de Souza
R, Emam A, Parker TL, Li TJ, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Singer W, Connelly PW.
Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, St Michael's Hospital, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2005 Jul;59(7):85160. BACKGROUND: 3Hydroxy3methylglutarylcoenzyme A (HMGCoA) reductase
inhibitors (statins) markedly reduce serum cholesterol and have antiinflammatory
effects. The effect of cholesterollowering diets on inflammatory biomarkers is less well
known. OBJECTIVE: To compare the efficacy of a dietary combination (portfolio) of
cholesterollowering foods vs a statin in reducing Creactive protein (CRP) as a
biomarker of inflammation linked to increased cardiovascular disease risk. METHODS: 34 In all, 34 hyperlipidemic subjects completed three 1month treatments as outpatients
in random order: a very lowsaturated fat diet (control); the same diet with 20 mg
lovastatin (statin); and a diet high in plant sterols (1.0 g/1000 kcal), soy protein (21.4
g/1000 kcal), viscous fibers (9.8 g/1000 kcal), and almonds (14 g/1000 kcal)
(portfolio). Fasting blood samples were obtained at weeks 0, 2, and 4. RESULTS: Using
the complete data, no treatment reduced serum CRP. However, when subjects with CRP
levels above the 75th percentile for previously reported studies (> 3.5 mg/l) were
excluded, CRP was reduced similarly on both statin, 16.3 +/ 6.7% (n = 23, P = 0.013)
and dietary portfolio, 23.8 +/ 6.9% (n = 25, P = 0.001) but not the control, 15.3 +/
13.6% (n = 28, P = 0.907). The percentage CRP change from baseline on the portfolio
treatment (n = 25) was greater than the control (n = 28, P = 0.004) but similar to statin
treatment (n = 23, P = 0.349). Both statin and portfolio treatments were similar in
reducing CRP and numerically more effective than control but only the change in
portfolio was significant after the Bonferroni adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: A
combination of cholesterollowering foods reduced Creactive protein to a similar
extent as the starting dose of a firstgeneration statin. 9. Direct comparison of a dietary portfolio of cholesterollowering foods with a statin in hypercholesterolemic participants. Jenkins DJ , Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Wong JM, de Souza R, Emam
A, Parker TL, Vidgen E, Trautwein EA, Lapsley KG, Josse RG, Leiter LA, Singer
W, Connelly PW. Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Center, St Michael's
Hospital, Toronto, Canada. cyril.kendall@utoronto.ca Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 Feb;81(2):3807. BACKGROUND: 3Hydroxy3methylglutarylcoenzyme A (HMGCoA) reductase
inhibitors reduce serum cholesterol and are increasingly advocated in primary prevention
to achieve reductions in LDL cholesterol. Newer dietary approaches combining
cholesterollowering foods may offer another option, but these approaches have not been
compared directly with statins in the same persons. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to
compare, in the same subjects, the cholesterollowering potential of a dietary portfolio
with that of a statin. DESIGN: Thirtyfour hyperlipidemic participants underwent all
three 1mo treatments in random order as outpatients: a verylowsaturatedfat diet
(control diet), the same diet plus 20 mg lovastatin (statin diet), and a diet high in
plant sterols ( 1.0 g/1000 kcal), soyprotein foods (including soy milks and soy
burgers, 21.4 g/1000 kcal), almonds (14 g/1000 kcal), and viscous fibers from oats,
barley, psyllium, and the vegetables okra and eggplant (10 g/1000 kcal) (portfolio
diets). Fasting blood samples were obtained at 0, 2, and 4 wk. RESULTS: LDL
cholesterol concentrations decreased by 8.5+/1.9%, 33.3+/1.9%, and 29.6+/1.3% after
4 wk of the control, statin, and portfolio diets, respectively. Although the absolute
difference between the statin and the portfolio treatments was significant at 4 wk (P=
0.013), 9 participants (26%) achieved their lowest LDLcholesterol concentrations with 35 the portfolio diet. Moreover, the statin (n=27) and the portfolio (n=24) diets did not differ
significantly (P=0.288) in their ability to reduce LDL cholesterol below the 3.4mmol/L
primary prevention cutoff. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary combinations may not differ in
potency from firstgeneration statins in achieving current lipid goals for primary
prevention. They may, therefore, bridge the treatment gap between current therapeutic
diets and newer statins. 10. Vegetarian diet and cholesterol and triglycerides levels. [Article in English, Portuguese] De Biase SG , Fernandes SF, Gianini RJ, Duarte JL. Catholic University at Sao
Paulo, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2007 Jan;88(1):359. OBJECTIVE: Compare levels of triglyceride (TG), total cholesterol (TC), low density
lipoprotein (LDL) and high density lipoprotein (HDL) among vegetarians and
omnivores. METHODS: Blood samples were collected from 76 individualsboth males
and femalesseparated in four different diet groups: omnivores, lactoovo vegetarians,
lacto vegetarians, and restricted vegetarians (or vegans). Dosing was done for: TC, LDL,
HDL and TG. RESULTS: Significant difference was reported for TC, LDL and TG
levels among the samples. Higher levels were reported by omnivores, with decreased
levels for vegetarians as animal products were restricted, with lowest levels having been
reported by vegans. Mean and standard deviation for TC were 208.09 +/ 49.09 mg/dl in
the group of omnivores, and 141.06 +/ 30.56 mg/dl in the group of vegans (p < 0.001).
LDL values for omnivores and vegans were respectively: 123.43 +/ 42.67 mg/dl and
69.28 +/ 29.53 mg/dl (p < 0.001). As for TG, those values were 155.68 +/ 119.84 mg/dl
and 81.67 +/ 81.90 mg/dl (p < 0.01). As for HDL level no difference was reported
between the samples, but HDL/TC ratio was significantly higher in vegans (p = 0.01).
CONCLUSION: Vegetarian diet was associated to lower levels of TG, TC and LDL
as compared to the diet of omnivores 11. LDL of Taiwanese vegetarians are less oxidizable than those of
omnivores. Lu SC, Wu WH, Lee CA, Chou HF, Lee HR, Huang PC. Department of
Biochemistry, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan. J Nutr. 2000 Jun;130(6):15916. The vegetarians in Taiwan consume diets high in polyunsaturated fatty acids. To
investigate whether this dietary pattern results in high susceptibility of LDL to
oxidation, 109 longterm (8 +/ 5 y) male and female vegans and lactovegetarians 36 (ages 3145 y) from Taipei and females from Hualien and matched omnivores were
recruited to have 24hrecall dietary assessments and blood lipid analysis. Body
mass index and blood pressure were significantly lower in all vegetarian groups than in
the matched omnivore groups (P < 0.05). Vegetarians consumed less energy except in the
males and less protein, fat and cholesterol (P < 0.05). The mean polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid (P/S) ratio of 2.4 in vegetarian diet was about two
times that in omnivore diet (P < 0. 001). The concentrations of plasma total and LDL
cholesterol (LDLC) but not HDLcholesterol (HDLC) were significantly lower (P <
0.001) and resulting HDLC/LDLC ratio was 38, 46 and 30% higher (P < 0.01) in Taipei
female, male and Hualien female vegetarians, respectively, than in the matched
omnivores. Plasma triglyceride concentration was significantly lower only in the Hualien
women vegetarians (31%, P < 0.001) than in the matched omnivores. The lag time of
conjugated diene formation in LDL oxidized in vitro induced by copper was longer in
Taipei female (62%, P < 0.001), male (29%, P < 0.05) and Hualien female (38%, P <
0.01), and the production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in LDL
after 24 h of oxidation was 2232% less (P < 0.005) in Taipei male and Hualien female
vegetarians than the matched omnivores. Lag time of LDL oxidation was negatively
related to LDL arachidonic (r = 0.55, P = 0.0003) and eicosapentaenoic (r = 0.47, P =
0.003) acid contents. LDLTBARS production was negatively related to LDL linoleic
acid content (r = 0.36, P = 0.023), but positively related to LDL arachidonic (r = 0.56, P
= 0.0002) and eicosapentaenoic (r = 0.45, P = 0.004) acids. No significant differences
were found in dietary vitamins C and E intakes and plasma LDL alphatocopherol
concentrations between vegetarians and omnivores . Our results suggest that
vegetarian diets decrease the susceptibility of LDL to oxidation despite their higher
dietary P/S ratio. 12. Lipid and antioxidant blood levels in vegetarians. KrajcovicovaKudlackova M, Simoncic R, Bederova A, Klvanova J, Brtkova A,
Grancicova E. Research Institute of Nutrition, Bratislava Slovak Republic. Nahrung. 1996 Feb;40(1):1720. Parameters of lipid metabolism (triacylglycerols TG, cholesterol CH, HDLCH, LDL
CH, atherogenic index AI, profile of fatty acids) were measured in blood samples of 81
healthy lacto and lactoovo vegetarians (42 males, 39 females; age range 1939 years).
The average period of being on a vegetarian diet was 6.2 years. Low levels of TG, CH,
LDLCH, AI and HDLCH values on the borderline between standard and reduced
risk (1.4 mmol.l1) can be considered as favourable from the atherosclerosis
prevention aspect. Compared with nonvegetarians (n = 62), the levels of TG, CH,
LDLCH, and AI are significantly reduced in the vegetarian group. As opposed to
nonvegetarians, vegetarians showed a higher total sum of polyunsaturated fatty
acids, a significantly higher content of linoleic acid (C 18:2) and linolenic acid (C
18:3), unchanged content of oleic acid (C 18:1), stearic acid (C 18:0) and other 37 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The process of lipoperoxidation (with polyunsaturated
fatty acids as substrate) is involved in the etiology of cardiovascular and oncological
diseases. Favourable values of prooxidativeantioxidative parameters demonstrated
a reduced risk of lipoperoxidation in vegetarians, compared to nonvegetarians
(significantly reduced content of conjugated dienes of fatty acids in plasma, significantly
higher plasma levels of vitamin C, betacarotene, vitamin E/cholesterol ratioand
indicator of LDL protection, vitamin E/triacylglycerols ratioan indicator of fatty acid
protection, selenium and glutathioneperoxidase activity). 13. Plasma fatty acid profile and prooxidativeantioxidative parameters in
vegetarians. KrajcovicovaKudlackova M , Simoncic R, Bederova A, Klvanova J, Babinska K,
Grancicova E. Research Institute of Nutrition, Bratislava, Slovak Republic. Nahrung. 1995;39(56):4527. Fatty acid profile in plasma was examined in 12 adult vegetarians (lacto and lacto
ovo) aged 4163 years with an average period of vegetarian nutrition of 9.8 years.
Difference in the content of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids in vegetarians was
insignificant (compared to nonvegetarians). Positive factor of vegetarian nutritional habit
with respect to atherosclerosis included significantly elevated content of linoleic acid (C
18:2) and linolenic acid (C 18:3), as well as unchanged or only slightly reduced content
of polyunsaturated fatty acidsarachidonic acid (C 20:4) and docosahexaenoic acid (C
22:6, n = 3). Favourable values of prooxidativeantioxidative parameters
(significantly reduced content of conjugated dienes of fatty acids in pla
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